The performances of 335 male and female swimmers competing in 50-, 100-, and 200-m freestyle events at the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games were videotaped and analyzed to determine stroke length (SL), stroke rate (SR), starting time (ST), turning times (TI = turn in, TO = turn out), finishing (end) time (ET), and average velocity (AV); relationships were then determined among these variables in addition to height, weight, age, and final time (FT). Differences were subsequently assessed within and among the events, and comparisons were made between male and female performances. ST, TI, TO, ET, and SL were identified as principal components of successful swimming performance at each distance. Results revealed statistically significant correlations between factors for all events. The men were older and taller; possessed longer stroke lengths; and started, turned, and swam faster than the women. As the race distance increased from 50 to 200 m, ST, TI, TO, SL, and ET increased for both men and women, while age, SR, and AV decreased.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between oxygen demand, stroke rate and swimming velocity in competitive swimmers. The subjects who volunteered for this study were ten trained male swimmers (age, 16.7 +/- 0.4 yrs). VO2peak, swimming velocities at 80% (V80% VO2peak) and 100% (V100% VO2peak) of VO2peak and swimming velocity at the onset of blood lactate accumulation (VOBLA) were determined during a swimming economy profile test in a swimming flume. In the swimming economy test, determined by studying the relationship between oxygen uptake and swimming velocity cubed, the subjects were instructed to swim for six minutes at five or six submaximal swimming velocities. Steady-state oxygen uptake and stroke rate were calculated during the final two minutes of swimming. Results indicated that there were significant correlations between oxygen uptake and swimming velocity cubed (r = 0.963 to 0.998, p < 0.01), between oxygen uptake and stroke rate (r = 0.925 to 0.998, p < 0.01) and between stroke rate and swimming velocity cubed (r = 0.897, p < 0.05; to 0.994, p < 0.01) for all subjects. Furthermore, it was found that the slopes of the regression lines between oxygen uptake and swimming velocity cubed and between oxygen demand and stroke rate were significantly correlated to swimming performance indices (V80% VO2peak, V100% VO2peak and VOBLA). The results of this study suggest that the slope of the regression line between oxygen uptake and stroke rate can be utilized as an effective index of evaluating swimming performance.

The purpose of this study was to describe the hydrodynamic characteristics of the four strokes by gender and performance level. Active drag during maximal swimming was measured in each of the four swimming strokes (freestyle, butterfly, backstroke, and breaststroke) on males and females of varying ability levels using the perturbation method developed by Kolmogorov and Duplisheva (1992). Active drag(FDa), the hydrodynamic coefficient(CxDa), and total external mechanical power output(Pto)were calculated at each swimmer's maximal swimming velocity. There were complex, nonlinear relationships between maximum swimming velocity and the three hydrodynamic indicators. The four swimming strokes were ranked in order of resistance based on the three hydrodynamic indicators. The order, from least to most resistance, was (1) freestyle, (2) backstroke, butterfly, (3) breaststroke. No statistical difference was seen between the backstroke and butterfly. Within each stroke, the most important factor for reducing active drag appeared to be individual biomechanical technique.

Twelve male 100-m freestyle swimmers were videotaped during the 1992 Olympic Games. Four cameras, two above water and two below, recorded the same stroke cycle of the swimmer at approximately the 40- to 45-m mark. The whole body and the recovering arms were digitized from the videotapes to recreate a complete stroke cycle. Body position variables and hand reaction forces (Schleihauf, 1979) were calculated. Swimmers were divided into elite and subelite groups based on their swimming velocity and were compared for differences in biomechanical variables. Elites used slightly lower hand forces while maintaining a higher propelling efficiency. Subelites had opposite rotations about the longitudinal axis of the body rather than symmetrical body roll. The elite swimmers were different from subelites in that their pulling patterns were more efficient and their body position was more streamlined. These variables assisted them in achieving faster swimming velocities without requiring higher propulsive forces.

It is difficult to ascertain for an individual high jumper the optimum values of the horizontal velocity and height of the center of mass at the end of the approach ran (VHOand H0, respectively) and of the activeness of the arms during the takeoff phase (AACT), because they depend on each athlete’s ability to resist buckling of the takeoff leg. However, the strongest jumpers will generally be those with the largest vertical elocity values at the end of the takeoff phase (VZ1). Therefore, VZ1may serve as a rough indicator of a high jumper’s ability to resist buckling. This project derived equations that permit the use of the measured VZ1value of a high jumper to predict what values should be expected for VHO, H0, and AACT. Comparison of the predicted and actual values of these parameters should help to diagnose the technique deficiencies of individual jumpers.