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In the last few years, the biogeography of many European plant species has been analyzed using molecular markers, and some consistent patterns of Pleistocenic differentiation and range fluctuations have been established. These studies mostly focused on perennial herbs or woody species, rarely considering annual taxa. This study focused on the annual Microthlaspi perfoliatum, which is distributed all over Europe and comprises three cytotypes. Morphologically, these cytotypes are hard to distinguish, although, based on molecular markers, they should be treated as two different species. Diploid and polyploid cytotypes had a different biogeographical history, with distinct glacial refugia. For the polyploids, a well-known distribution pattern of relict areas was confirmed, with Iberia, Italy, and the Balkans serving as primary Pleistocene refugia. Secondary refuge areas have been detected in southeastern France and neighboring Switzerland, with closer affinity to the Iberian refugium than to any other region based on allozyme and cpDNA haplotype data. For the diploids, two refugia have been characterized, one of which is congruent to the secondary refugium of the polyploids in France and Switzerland. The second refuge of diploid populations is located in unglaciated lowland areas of East Austria and Croatia. Isozyme and cpDNA haplotype data favor a postglacial colonization of diploid populations into Germany from Austrian lowland areas along the Danube River as well as from Switzerland. This scenario is also true for polyploids in Germany, Belgium, and Sweden.

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