Nitrification, a microbial process, is a key component and integral part of the nitrogen (N) cycle. Soil N is in a constant state of flux, moving and changing chemical forms. During nitrification, a relatively immobile N-form (NH + 4) is converted into highly mobile nitrate-N (NO − 3). The nitrate formed is susceptible to losses via leaching and conversion to gaseous forms via denitrification. Often less than 30% of the applied N fertilizer is recovered in intensive agricultural systems, largely due to losses associated with and following nitrification. Nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) is defined as the biomass produced per unit of assimilated N and is a conservative function in most biological systems. A better alternative is to define NUE as the dry matter produced per unit N applied and strive for improvements in agronomic yields through N recovery. Suppressing nitrification along with its associated N losses is potentially a key part in any strategy to improve N recovery and agronomic NUE. In many mature N-limited ecosystems, nitrification is reduced to a relatively minor flux. In such systems there is a high degree of internal N cycling with minimal loss of N. In contrast, in most highproduction agricultural systems nitrification is a major process in N cycling with the resulting N losses and inefficiencies. This review presents the current state of knowledge on nitrification and associated N losses, and discusses strategies for controlling nitrification in agricultural systems. Limitations of the currently available nitrification inhibitors are highlighted. The concept of biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) is proposed for controlling nitrification in agricultural systems utilizing traits found in natural ecosystems. It is emphasized that suppression of nitrification in agricultural systems is a critical step required for improving agronomic NUE and maintaining environmental quality.

Leaf rust and stripe rust, caused by Puccinia triticina and P. striiformis, respectively, are important diseases of wheat in many countries. In this study we sought to identify molecular markers for adult plant resistance genes that could aid in incorporating such durable resistance into wheat. We used a doubled haploid population from a Japanese cv. Fukuho-komugi x Israeli wheat Oligoculm cross that had segregated for resistance to leaf rust and stripe rust in field trials. Joint and/or single-year analyses by composite interval mapping identified two quantitative trait loci (QTL) that reduced leaf rust severity and up to 11 and 7 QTLs that might have influenced stripe rust severity and infection type, respectively. Four common QTLs reduced stripe rust severity and infection type. Except for a QTL on chromosome 7DS, no common QTL for leaf rust and stripe rust was detected. QTL-7DS derived from 'Fukuho-komugi' had the largest effect on both leaf rust and stripe rust severities, possibly due to linked resistance genes Lr34/Yr18. The microsatellite locus Xgwm295.1, located almost at the peak of the likelihood ratio contours for both leaf and stripe rust severity, was closest to Lr34/Yr18. QTLs located on 1BL for leaf rust severity and 3BS for stripe rust infection type were derived from 'Oligoculm' and considered to be due to genes Lr46 and Yr30, respectively. Most of the remaining QTLs for stripe rust severity or infection type had smaller effects. Our results indicate there is significant diversity for genes that have minor effects on stripe rust resistance, and that successful detection of these QTLs by molecular markers should be helpful both for characterizing wheat genotypes effectively and combining such resistance genes.

Salt stress inhibits soybean growth and reduces gain yield. Genetic improvement of salt tolerance is essential for sustainable soybean production in saline areas. In this study, we isolated a gene (Ncl) that could synchronously regulate the transport and accumulation of Na+, K+, and Cl− from a Brazilian soybean cultivar FT-Abyara using map-based cloning strategy. Higher expression of the salt tolerance gene Ncl in the root resulted in lower accumulations of Na+, K+, and Cl− in the shoot under salt stress. Transfer of Ncl with the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation method into a soybean cultivar Kariyutaka significantly enhanced its salt tolerance. Introgression of the tolerance allele into soybean cultivar Jackson, using DNA marker-assisted selection (MAS), produced an improved salt tolerance line. Ncl could increase soybean grain yield by 3.6–5.5 times in saline field conditions. Using Ncl in soybean breeding through gene transfer or MAS would contribute to sustainable soybean production in saline-prone areas.

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In recent years soybean rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi has become one of the most serious threats to soybean production in Brazil. Breeding lines and varieties have been selected for resistance to soybean rust in Asia. However, differences in virulence between Asian and Brazilian rust populations should be considered in order to select and use resistant resources from Asia. Here, we suggest criteria for distinguishing resistant from susceptible types by the analysis of four resistance characters: frequency of lesions having uredinia, number of uredinia per lesion, frequency of open uredinia, and sporulation level, determined by the utilization of 63 genotypes. Under growth chamber conditions, a set of 13 soybean varieties were exposed to three rust populations-one from Japan and two from Braziland evaluated for the resistance characters mentioned above. The Japanese and Brazilian populations clearly differed in virulence, as did the two Brazilian populations. Only two resistance genes, Rpp4 from PI459025 and Rpp5 from Shiranui, commonly conferred resistance on all three rust populations. The number of resistant varieties or resistance genes useful in both countries appears limited. Therefore, a resistant cultivar that is universally effective against soybean rust should be developed by pyramiding some major resistance genes and by introducing horizontal resistance. Keywords: Phakopsora pachyrhizi, lesion type, pathogenicity, resistant variety. RESUMO Desenvolvimento de critério de classificação da resistência à ferrugem asiática da soja e diferenças de virulência entre populações do Japão e do BrasilNos últimos anos a ferrugem asiática, causada pelo fungo Phakopsora pachyrhizi tornou-se uma das mais sérias ameaças a produção de soja Brasileira. Linhagens melhoradas e variedades têm sido selecionadas para a resistência à ferrugem da soja na Ásia, entretanto para a seleção e utilização dessas fontes de resistência, diferenças de virulência entre populações Asiáticas e Brasileiras desse fungo devem ser consideradas. Neste trabalho sugerimos um critério para se distinguir resistência de susceptibilidade pela análise de quatro caracteres de resistência: freqüência de lesões contendo urédias, número de urédias por lesão, freqüência de urédias abertas e nível de esporulação determinados pela utilização de 63 genótipos. Sob condições controladas em câmaras de crescimento, treze variedades de soja foram expostas a três populações de fungos -uma população proveniente do Japão e duas populações provenientes do Brasil-e avaliadas quanto aos caracteres de resistência mencionados acima. As populações Brasileiras diferiram entre si claramente quanto a virulência e em relação à população de isolados do Japão. Apenas dois genes de resistência, Rpp4 presente na variedade PI459025 e Rpp5 presente na variedade Shiranui conferiram resistência as três populações da ferrugem. O número de variedades ou genes resistentes úteis em ambos os países parece ser limitado. Assim, um cultivar universalmente efetivo contra a ferru...