SummaryProtein function is often mediated via formation of stable or transient complexes. Here we report the determination of protein-protein interactions in plants using bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC). The yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) was split into two non-overlapping N-terminal (YN) and C-terminal (YC) fragments. Each fragment was cloned in-frame to a gene of interest, enabling expression of fusion proteins. To demonstrate the feasibility of BiFC in plants, two pairs of interacting proteins were utilized: (i) the a and b subunits of the Arabidopsis protein farnesyltransferase (PFT), and (ii) the polycomb proteins, FERTILIZATION-INDEPENDENT ENDOSPERM (FIE) and MEDEA (MEA). Members of each protein pair were transiently co-expressed in leaf epidermal cells of Nicotiana benthamiana or Arabidopsis. Reconstitution of a fluorescing YFP chromophore occurred only when the inquest proteins interacted. No fluorescence was detected following co-expression of free non-fused YN and YC or non-interacting protein pairs. Yellow fluorescence was detected in the cytoplasm of cells that expressed PFT a and b subunits, or in nuclei and cytoplasm of cells that expressed FIE and MEA. In vivo measurements of fluorescence spectra emitted from reconstituted YFPs were identical to that of a non-split YFP, confirming reconstitution of the chromophore. Expression of the inquest proteins was verified by immunoblot analysis using monoclonal antibodies directed against tags within the hybrid proteins. In addition, protein interactions were confirmed by immunoprecipitations. These results demonstrate that plant BiFC is a simple, reliable and relatively fast method for determining protein-protein interactions in plants.

Following the complete genome sequencing of different plant species such as Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), rice (Oryza sativa), and Physcomitrella (Physcomitrella patens), as well as advances toward deciphering entire proteomes, the need for a reliable way to identify protein-protein interactions is becoming a major task for the future. Bimolecular fluorescent complementation (BiFC) is a noninvasive fluorescentbased technique that allows detection of protein-protein interactions in living cells, and furthermore can be used to determine subcellular localization of the interacting proteins, and if it changes over time, without requiring addition of external agents. BiFC is based upon reconstitution of split nonfluorescent GFP variants, primarily yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), to form a fluorescent fluorophore (Ghosh et al., 2000;Hu et al., 2002). The technique has become increasingly popular due to its simplicity, ease of use, and the capability to carry out experiments with regular epifluorescence or confocal laser scanning microscopes (CLSMs). In this Update, we first discuss the principles of BiFC and its major advantages and disadvantages. We then describe the adaptation of BiFC to plant systems, provide practical suggestions for its use, and review protein-protein interactions that have been identified and confirmed in plants using this technique. Finally, additional potential exploitations of BiFC are discussed.Due to lack of space we did not discuss other fluorescent-based techniques for detection of proteinprotein interactions, such as fluorescent resonance energy transfer, and refer the readers to a recent review on fluorescent resonance energy transfer and BiFC (Bhat et al., 2006). Discussion of additional protein fragment complementation assays techniques can be found in a recent review (Remy and Michnick, 2007). We also apologize to those colleagues whose work we have not cited due to lack of space. THE PRINCIPLES AND DEVELOPMENT OF BiFCThe BiFC Principle BiFC is based upon tethering split YFP or other GFP variants to form a functional fluorophore. The association of the split YFP/GFP/cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) molecule does not occur spontaneously and requires interaction between proteins or peptides that are fused to each of the fluorophore fragments (Fig. 1). Upon interaction of these fused proteins/peptides, the split fluorophore fragments can interact to form a fluorescent protein that has the same spectral properties as the unsplit YFP (or other GFP variants; Figs. 1 and 2). If the proteins that are fused to the split fluorophore fragments do not interact, reconstitution of the YFP/GFP/CFP usually does not take place and no fluorescence is detected.

Prenylation is a posttranslational protein modification essential for developmental processes and response to abscisic acid. Following prenylation, the three C-terminal residues are proteoliticaly removed and in turn the free carboxyl group of the isoprenyl cysteine is methylated. The proteolysis and methylation, collectively referred to as CaaX processing, are catalyzed by Ste24 endoprotease or Rce1 endoprotease and by an isoprenyl cysteine methyltransferase (ICMT). Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) contains single STE24 and RCE1 and two ICMT homologs. Here we show that in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) AtRCE1 promoted a-mating factor secretion and membrane localization of a ROP GTPase. Furthermore, green fluorescent protein fusion proteins of AtSTE24, AtRCE1, AtICMTA, and AtICMTB are colocalized in the endoplasmic reticulum, indicating that prenylated proteins reach this compartment and that CaaX processing is likely required for subcellular targeting. AtICMTB can process yeast a-factor more efficiently than AtICMTA. Sequence and mutational analyses revealed that the higher activity AtICMTB is conferred by five residues, which are conserved between yeast Ste14p, human ICMT, and AtICMTB but not in AtICMTA. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and microarray data show that AtICMTA expression is significantly lower compared to AtICMTB. AtICMTA null mutants have a wild-type phenotype, indicating that its function is redundant. However, AtICMT RNAi lines had fasciated inflorescence stems, altered phylotaxis, and developed multiple buds without stem elongation. The phenotype of the ICMT RNAi lines is similar to farnesyltransferase b-subunit mutant enhanced response to abscisic acid2 but is more subtle. Collectively, the data suggest that AtICMTB is likely the major ICMT and that methylation modulates activity of prenylated proteins.Prenylation is a posttranslational protein modification essential for the function of diverse proteins. Plant mutants lacking prenyltransferase function have pleotropic phenotypes including enlargement of the shoot apical meristem, hypersensitivity to abscisic acid (ABA), retarded growth rate, and delayed flowering (Cutler et al

Chromosomal rearrangements of the human KMT2A/MLL gene are associated with de novo as well as therapy-induced infant, pediatric, and adult acute leukemias. Here, we present the data obtained from 3401 acute leukemia patients that have been analyzed between 2003 and 2022. Genomic breakpoints within the KMT2A gene and the involved translocation partner genes (TPGs) and KMT2A-partial tandem duplications (PTDs) were determined. Including the published data from the literature, a total of 107 in-frame KMT2A gene fusions have been identified so far. Further 16 rearrangements were out-of-frame fusions, 18 patients had no partner gene fused to 5’-KMT2A, two patients had a 5’-KMT2A deletion, and one ETV6::RUNX1 patient had an KMT2A insertion at the breakpoint. The seven most frequent TPGs and PTDs account for more than 90% of all recombinations of the KMT2A, 37 occur recurrently and 63 were identified so far only once. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the KMT2A recombinome in acute leukemia patients. Besides the scientific gain of information, genomic breakpoint sequences of these patients were used to monitor minimal residual disease (MRD). Thus, this work may be directly translated from the bench to the bedside of patients and meet the clinical needs to improve patient survival.

Our aim was to identify miRNAs that can predict risk of relapse in pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Following high-throughput miRNA expression analysis (48 samples), five miRs were selected for further confirmation performed by real time quantitative PCR on a cohort of precursor B-cell ALL patients (n = 138). The results were correlated with clinical parameters and outcome. Low expression of miR-151-5p, and miR-451, and high expression of miR-1290 or a combination of all three predicted inferior relapse free survival (P = 0.007, 0.042, 0.025, and <0.0001, respectively). Cox regression analysis identified aberrant expression of the three miRs as an independent prognostic marker with a 10.5-fold increased risk of relapse (P = 0.041) in PCR-MRD non-high risk patients. Furthermore, following exclusion of patients harboring IKZF1 deletion, the aberrant expression of all three miRs could identify patients with a 24.5-fold increased risk to relapse (P < 0.0001). The prognostic relevance of the three miRNAs was evaluated in a non-BFM treated precursor B-cell ALL cohort (n = 33). A significant correlation between an aberrant expression of at least one of the three miRs and poor outcome was maintained (P < 0.0001). Our results identify an expression profile of miR-151-5p, miR-451, and miR-1290 as a novel biomarker for outcome in pediatric precursor B-cell ALL patients, regardless of treatment protocol. The use of these markers may lead to improved risk stratification at diagnosis and allow early therapeutic interventions in an attempt to improve survival of high risk patients.