Objectives: Equestrian helmets are designed to pass certification standards based on linear drop tests onto rigid steel surfaces. However, concussions in equestrian sports occur most commonly when a rider is thrown off a horse and obliquely impacts a compliant surface such as turf or sand. This paper seeks to elucidate the mechanics of such impacts and thereby propose corresponding thresholds for the occurrence of concussion that can improve equestrian helmet standards and designs. Design: The present study examined the biomechanics of real-world equestrian accidents and developed thresholds for the occurrence of concussive injury. Methods: Twenty-five concussive and 25 non-concussive falls in equestrian sports were reconstructed using a combination of video analysis, computational and physical reconstruction methods. These represented male and female accidents from horse racing and the crosscountry phase of eventing. Results: The resulting thresholds for concussion [59 g, 2700 rad/s 2 , 28 rad/s, 0.24 (MPS), 6.6 kPa and 0.27 (CSMD 10) for 50% risk] were consistent with those reported in the literature and represent a unique combination of head kinematic thresholds compared to other sports. Current equestrian helmet standards commonly use a threshold of 250 g and a linear drop to a steel anvil resulting in less than 15 ms impacts. This investigation found that concussive equestrian accidents occurred from oblique impacts to turf or sand with lower magnitude and longer duration impacts (<130 g and >20 ms). This suggests that current equestrian helmet standards may not adequately represent real-world concussive impact conditions and, consequently, there is an urgent need to assess the protective capacity of equestrian helmets under real-world conditions.

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Head injuries account for 15% to 20% of all military injuries and pose a high risk of causing functional disability and fatality. Blunt ballistic impacts are one of the threats that can lead to severe head injuries. This review aims to examine the mechanisms and injury risk assessment associated with blunt ballistic head injury (BBHI). The review further discusses research methods and instrumentation used in BBHI studies, focusing on their limitations and challenges. Studies on the mechanisms of focal and diffuse brain injuries remain largely inconclusive and require further efforts. Some studies have attempted to associate BBHIs with head mechanics, but more research is required to establish correlations between head mechanics and injury severity. Limited access to experimental models and a lack of instrumentation capable of measuring the mechanics of brain tissue in-situ are potential reasons for the lack of understanding of injury mechanisms, injury correlations and injury tolerance levels specific to this loading regime. Targeted research for understanding and assessing head injuries in blunt ballistic impacts is a necessary step in improving our ability to design protection systems to mitigate these injuries.

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