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The literature involving the use of flooding procedures to achieve fear reduction in both human and infra-human Ss is critically reviewed with reference to techniques, important parameters and theoretical explanations. Much of the research has produced variable and conflicting results due to poor experimental control and confounding, yielding difficulties in interpretation. The following representative conclusions are suggested: (a) stimulus flooding, appropriately administered, appears an effective method of fear reduction; ( b ) the theoretical importance of hypothesized sequential cues is questioned on the basis that the construct serves as neither an explanatory nor a predictive vehicle; (c) parameters accounting for change are not well delineated, but duration of the flooding scene, the quality of its aversiveness to S, and S's initial degree of avoidance behavior appear important; ( d ) extinction as an explanatory principle is seriously overused and alternative constructs from adaptation level theory, modeling theory, and cognitive rehearsal may be involved. Innovative modifications suggest new and interesting research on elicitation of affect and interpretation.

The magnetoelectronic device characteristics of a GMR “transpinnor,” a new multifunctional solid-state device, and a magnetic random access memory (MRAM) have been investigated using the structure of closed-flux NiFe/Cu/CoFe/Cu/NiFe pseudo spin-valve (PSV) for a new current driver-one MRAM cell architecture on the same substrate. The electrical and magnetic device characteristics of a PSV-MRAM cell and single or dual-input “transpinnors” are a GMR ratio of 3%–6% and a sheet resistivity of 4–5Ω/□. The switching characteristics of PSV MRAM cells were measured using patterned Si/Si3N4/PSV with a NiFe(30 nm)/Cu(90 nm) word or input line. The writing field was set at ±40 Oe and a 1–3 mV output signal was obtained when a 10.2 Oe sensing field was induced by a word line with a current density of 2.7×106 A/cm2. The output characteristics of the GMR “transpinnor” were measured using a PSV fabricated on the same wafer with the MRAM cell. Similar to standard transistor characteristics, the transpinnor exhibits a very high output signal between 2 and 3 mA (output load R=1 Ω) at a low 8 Oe switching field, which should be potentially useful as a current driver for activating PVS-MRAM circuits and for realizing various new logic gates such as OR, NAND, and other multivalue logic states.

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