Results suggest that deficits on specific neuropsychological tests, most notably Digit Symbol, Block Design and Judgment of Line Orientation, may be indicative of cognitive endophenotypes for bipolar disorder. Replication studies are needed to further identify these deficits as endophenotypes for BD I.

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Working memory deficits have been identified in bipolar disorder, but there is evidence suggesting that these deficits may be markers for psychosis rather than affective disorder. The current study examined this issue by comparing two groups of individuals with bipolar disorder, one with psychotic features and one without psychotic features, with a group of normal controls. Working memory was conceptualized as a multicomponent system that includes auditory and visuospatial short-term stores, executive control processes, and an episodic buffer that allows for communication between short- and long-term memory stores (Baddeley & Logie, 1999). Results indicated that only executive control processes significantly differentiated the psychotic and nonpsychotic bipolar groups, although visuospatial working memory differentiated both bipolar groups from controls. The results support the idea that some aspects of working memory performance are markers for psychosis, while others may be more general markers for bipolar disorders.

The lifetime prevalence rates for alcohol and drug use disorders are 18.2% and 6.1%, respectively. Males are two to three times more likely to be diagnosed with a substance use disorder than females. Substance use disorders are often chronic, debilitating, and associated with increased mortality rates, homelessness, and utilization of health care systems. As a result, substance use disorders are enormously costly, with estimates of yearly costs reaching $300 billion. Neuropsychological testing has been used extensively to evaluate individuals with substance use disorders because substances can cause a wide range of neurocognitive deficits. These deficits are associated with treatment outcomes and also provide insight into brain regions that are susceptible to the effects of various substances.

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