In Finland, the epic Kalevala (1835, 1849) and Kalevala-meter poetry, or oral folk poetry more generally, are often seen as nationally significant symbols of Finnishness. The Kalevala is a modern literary product constructed by Elias Lönnrot out of Finnic folk poetry especially from Russian Karelia, Finland, and Ingria. Lönnrot, who was himself among the most significant collectors of oral poetry, created the Kalevala as a synthetic, organized compendium of (reconstructed) pre-modern “Finnish” culture. Beginning from the publication of the first edition in 1835, the Kalevala has been extremely significant in the creation of Finnish national and ethnic identity. In this article, we discuss the engenderment of Finnishness and Finnish culture in terms of language ideologies by looking closely at the Kalevala's languages, language-specific reception of the epic, Lönnrot's language ideologies, and politics of language standardization in the contexts of the Grand Duchy of Finland and Russia. We argue that in these processes, Finnish was strongly symbolized and given a mythological charter: it was the language encapsulating ancestral heritage, and it was the language that theFinns were obliged to develop, learn, and teach. For the needs of the nation, the language had to be refined and homogenized, made into a standard language. In this process, the Karelian language and culture were implicitly absorbed into Finnish cultural heritage but not recognized and valued as coeval cultural realities: in both Finnish and Russian discourses, Karelia represented the past of the present-day Finnishness, but not the present day of Karelianness.
Parallelism 1 has been considered a fundamental feature of artistic expression. Robert Lowth (1753:180) coined the term parallelismus membrorum ("parallelism of members") to describe a variety of different types of equivalence or resemblance that he observed between verses in Biblical Hebrew. Lowth's study is in many respects the foundation of research on parallelism, 2 although his terminology only began to spread across the nineteenth century. The concept expanded considerably during the twentieth century, especially through the far-reaching influences of Roman Jakobson. From early in his career, Jakobson looked at parallelism as an abstract text-structuring principle of "le rapprochement de deux unités" (Jakobson 1977 [1919]: 25) ("the bringing together of two units;" translations following a citation are by the present authors), later referred to in English as "recurrent returns" (1981 [1966]:98). Jakobson saw parallelism not only at the level of words, syntax, or meanings of verses as discussed by Lowth, but also at the level of sounds and rhythms within and across verses as well as in larger, complex structures. The breadth of Jakobson's perspective allowed textual parallelism to connect fluidly with parallelism in music and other forms of expression. His views are the foundation for advancing the concept from language to a general semiotic phenomenon-a phenomenon observable within and across all sorts of media. Parallelism has become a central term and concept on discussions of literature, poetics, and beyond, and yet the phenomenon is so basic, so pervasive, that it is challenging to pin down. The discourse surrounding parallelism has constructed the ways we think about the concept. Recognizing what has happened in that discourse can make it easier to make sense of the different ways the concept is handled. Nigel Fabb recently observed that parallelism "has remained undertheorized." 3 Across the past century, research on parallelism has developed considerably, but James J. Fox describes this research as developing "in silos:" it builds up in towers of discussion on parallelism in a particular culture, language group, or field of research
Yksi kalevalamittaisen kansanrunouden-kenties runouden yleensä-keskeisistä toimintatavoista on luoda kielen ja maailman välille yhä uusia, muutoin kuvittelemattomissa olevia merkitysyhteyksiä. Näitä yhteyksiä punoessa näkymätön ja selittämätön puetaan konkreettisiksi kuviksi ja siten käsinkosketeltavaksi, havainnolliseksi ja ymmärrettäväksi. Samalla arkipäiväinen ja ilmeinen saatetaan yhä uusien kuvien yhteyteen niin, että sen totutut merkitykset hämärtyvät ja kyseenalaistuvat. Keskeisellä sijalla merkityksiä luodessa on mielikuvitus-"kuvasti", "kuvatuslahja" tai "kuvais-aisti", kuten Lönnrot esitti sanan fantasia suomenkielisen vastineen suomi-ruotsi-sanakirjassaan (Lönnrot 1958a, 830; 1958b, 76). Sanakirjamääritelmän mukaan mielikuvitus on ihmisen kykyä luoda mielikuvia ilman välitöntä aistihavaintoa kohteesta (Oxford English Dictionary), mutta filosofiassa, psykologiassa ja taiteentutkimuksessa sen käsitehistoria on monihaarainen (ks. esim. Iser 1993; Johnson 1987, 141-166; Petterson 2002). Mielikuvituksessa kuvia ja ideoita voidaan yhdistellä ilman jatkuvaa todellisuustarkistusta; tiettyyn pisteeseen asti mielikuvitus on siis vapaa. Mikäli lähdemme siitä, että mielikuvitus on kommunikoitavissa ja käännettävissä kielellisiksi ilmauksiksi, liittyy siihen kielen ja kulttuurin asettamia rajoja, konventioita. Elias Lönnrot (1840, i) kiinnitti Kantelettaren esipuheessa huomiota tämän kääntymisprosessin vajavaisuuteen: "mielen ja ajatusten asioita kertoessa" "kuvaanta ei taida tapahtua, paitsi äänen ja sanan kautta, puuttuvaisesti, niinkun kaikenlainen muuki kuvaus maailmassa". Kysyn seuraavassa, miten tämän on ymmärretty tapahtuvan suomalaisen kansanrunouden tutkimuksessa. Kalevalamittaisen runouden tutkimuksessa kysymys mielikuvituksesta linkittyy ennen kaikkea kolmeen seikkaan: runon luomiseen tai syntyyn yksilöllisen tai kollektiivisen luovuuden kautta, myyttisten käsitysten alkuperään ja runokielen kuvallisuuteen. Mielikuvitus ja mielikuvituksellisuus ovat kuitenkin olleet jäännöskategorioita, joita ei ole pyritty käsitteellistämään ja joiden hahmottamisessa on turvauduttu metaforiin: mielikuvitusta kuvataan muun muassa "äärettömäksi
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