Riparian forests are important ecosystems located along the margins of freshwaters. Riparian zones provide many ecosystem services, such as nutrient modification, erosion and temperature control, leading to improvements in water quality in adjacent water ecosystems. In many areas, riparian forest management is restricted to improve adjacent water quality. The potential influence of forest management on water quality of small streams was assessed by analysing species composition and structural diversity in riparian forests. We collected data in riparian forests along 15 streams in the eastern Baltics (Latvia) with different water quality classes. We used detrended correspondence analysis and indicator species’ analysis to determine relationships between woody plants and understory vegetation. We also used ADONIS and ANOSIM analysis to determine possible factors that affect species composition. Our results suggested that water quality is affected by ground vegetation, which in turn was altered by stand density and total yield. Site-specific decision making in management is required in riparian forests to ensure the required conditions in the streams, because species composition differs between sites, dominant tree species and stand parameters (density, total yield, stand age). Introduction of Betula pubescens Ehrh. in coniferous stands is favourable to ensure litter fall quality and provide shade for streams during summer.

Riparian forests are ecotones that differ from the surrounding landscapes, delineating the transition from terrestrial ecosystems into aquatic ones. Riparian forest management has been recognized as a possible method for promoting several ecological functions. In order to develop a sustainable and resilient relationship between river riparian forests and society, it is necessary to analyze the sociocultural dimension of riparian zones. The aim of this study was to assess the social perceptions of riparian forests. A total of 734 respondents (61% woman), inhabitants from the region of Latvia, where there is a rather dense network of streams, were surveyed. Respondents represented various education levels, ages, and economic backgrounds. Riverine forests tend to be a less popular option for recreation compared with other types of forests. The most popular activities were walking and swimming. “Forest and water bodies” was not among the main topics that respondents were concerned about. Regarding rivers and riparian forests, the obstructed movement of fish to spawning grounds was recognized as the most important problem, but the least concerning was the reduction of water tourism and fishing opportunities. Dynamic river basin and river bank management could be a possible solution to restoring eligible locations for recreational activities, at least along some parts of rivers, and for improving the state of riparian ecosystems simultaneously.

The importance of riparian forest protection is widely acknowledged. However, scientific discussions are still ongoing as to the most suitable and effective protection activities for these forests. The quality of the provision of different ecosystem services in protected riparian forest buffers could provide an insight into the impact of protection regulations. Cultural ecosystem services in riparian forests have an important social-ecological context, especially with the growing interest in recreation activities in forests. The aim of our study was to compare provision of different ecosystem services in riparian forest buffers located both adjacent to (0–50 m) and distant from (51–200 m) the stream. In our study, four small-to-medium-sized rivers in Latvia were used. In total, six different indicators of ecosystem services were estimated, based on data from the National Forest Inventory and the European Soil Data Centre. Bayesian ordinal regression was employed to assess the differences between the two buffer strips. Our results showed that the majority of assessed ecosystem service indicators (Recreation potential of the forest ecosystem, Visual quality of the forest landscape, Potential for the presence of medicinal plants and Potential for the presence of nectar plants) were of higher quality in the adjacent (0–50 m) buffer. Only one indicator (Flora with phytoremediation potential) had significantly higher values in the distant buffer strips (estimate 0.24, CI: [0.11, 0.38]). The observed distribution of quality classes showed that, only for the indicator Potential of medicinal plants, the highest quality class was the most common (>60%), for other indicators dominated average quality class estimations. The obtained results suggested that the current protection status that riparian forest buffers have facilitated maintain the provision of several cultural and regulation & maintenance ecosystem services.

Riparian forests are considered to be productive transitional zones between aquatic and terrestrial environments. Despite the complex systems of riparian forests, little is known about their potential for carbon storage, particularly under temperate climates. This study aimed to calculate the major carbon pools (woody biomass) of riparian forests surrounding small and medium streams in the hemiboreal zone in Latvia. The estimated woody carbon pool of the studied riparian forests was comparable to that in commercially managed forest stands within the region. The total woody biomass carbon pool was 141.6 ± 62.5 Mg C ha−1, the majority of which was formed by stem biomass. Similar to other studies, there was high spatial variability, while significant differences were observed between dominant tree species. The results suggest that the carbon storage of the studied riparian forests was not as high as it was expected to be; however, the results did not include soil carbon pool assessment. Grey alder stands, which are considered undesirable near streams due to erosion and nutrient leakage, formed a significantly lower carbon pool, supporting their management for the multipurpose goal of riparian forests.