The behavioural repertoires and time budgets of 2 captive groups and 1 semi-free-ranging group of Cebus olivaceus were determined with the aim to assess the impact of the zoo environment on behaviour. The repertoires were qualitatively similar between groups and to those reported for wild troops, but the captive groups showed self-directed and stereotyped behaviours not reported in the wild. The differences in repertoires between groups were easily associated with the opportunity to interact directly with the visitors, with particularities of the enclosure and with the severity of confinement. Overall, females spent more time foraging than males in the 2 captive groups, and adults rested and watched more than subadults in all the groups. Time budgets were dominated by foraging, resting, movement and affiliative interactions, but their relative importance varied between groups, with foraging being especially prominent in the most confined group. The time budgets also varied qualitatively from those reported for wild troops. We conclude the species is behaviourally able to adjust to captivity, but the slight differences along the continuum from wild to semi-free to captive are suggestive of mild stress or social tension probably due to unstimulating environmental conditions, high visitor pressure and deviations from typical sex-age group composition.

Social behavior of the Wedge-capped Capuchin Monkey Cebus olivaceus (Primates: Cebidae) in three zoological exhibits of Caracas, Venezuela. Captivity represents an extreme situation for primates, especially for those with large home ranges, and its effect on their behavior might be considerable. The Wedgecapped Capuchin Monkey Cebus olivaceus is the most common primate in Venezuelan zoos. To estimate the effect of confinement on C. olivaceus behavior, we analyzed the social behavior of three groups that differed in captivity conditions, in zoological exhibits in Caracas (Caricuao, Parque del Este, El Pinar). Caricuao's group moved freely over a non-fenced area of 15 ha, Parque del Este's and El Pinar's groups lived in relatively small outdoor enclosures. Social behaviors were described using focal-animal sampling, group scans and ad libitum sampling. The frequency, duration and time devoted to each behavior (per focal period per individual) were estimated. Relative dominance between pairs of individuals was established as well as affiliative associations. The repertory of social behaviors was similar between groups and to which has been observed in nature, but the duration and frequency of affiliative and agonistic interactions differed between groups. Affiliative behaviors were less frequent but longer in Caricuao than in the other two groups, while agonistic behaviors were more frequent in El Pinar and Parque del Este. Differences between groups are explained by variation in captivity conditions. We suggest that confinement generates social tension and favors agonism, while affiliative encounters help reduce this tension. On the other hand, differences in agonism between captive and natural groups may result form prolonged association, restrictions to keep optimal spacing or leave the group. All groups had some social structure (e.g., dominance ranks, association and repulsion between individuals) but the social dynamic was partly disrupted. Dominance ranks were not clear throughout the group, the top male was not dominant over the top female, dominant individuals did not interact affiliatively more than other individuals, and females did not affiliate frequently with other females. All of these observations are contrary to which has been observed in nature. As a whole, C. olivaceus tolerates captivity well because its behavioral repertoire is similar to that in natural conditions, and abnormal or undesirable behaviors (e.g., self-mutilation, stereotyped actions), were not observed. Nonetheless, there is an effect of captivity, reflected in a disruption of the social dynamic. Rev. Biol.