Dopaminergic neurons of the ventral midbrain fire high frequency bursts when animals are presented with unexpected rewards, or stimuli that predict reward. To identify the afferents that can initiate bursting and establish therapeutic strategies for diseases affected by altered bursting, a mechanistic understanding of bursting is essential. Our results show that bursting is initiated by a specific interaction between the voltage sensitivity of NMDA receptors and voltage-gated ion channels, which result in the activation of an intrinsic, action potential-independent, high-frequency membrane potential oscillation. We further show that the NMDA receptor is uniquely suited for this because of the rapid kinetics and voltage dependence imparted to it by Mg2+ ion block and unblock. This mechanism explains the discrete nature of bursting in dopaminergic cells, and demonstrates how synaptic signals may be reshaped by local intrinsic properties of a neuron before influencing action potential generation.

Striatal cholinergic interneurons discharge rhythmically in two patterns associated with different afterhyperpolarization timescales, each dictated by a different calcium-dependent potassium current. Single spiking depends on a medium-duration afterhyperpolarization (mAHP) generated by rapid SK currents that are associated with N-type calcium channels. Periodic bursting is driven by a delayed and slowly decaying afterhyperpolarization (sAHP) current associated with L-type channels. Using calcium imaging we show that the calcium transients underlying these currents exhibit two corresponding timescales throughout the somatodendritic tree. This result is not consistent with spatial compartmentalization of calcium entering through the two calcium channels and acting on the two potassium currents, or with differences in channel gating kinetics of the calcium dependent potassium currents. Instead, we show that nonequilibrium dynamics of calcium redistribution among cytoplasmic binding sites with different calcium binding kinetics can give rise to multiple timescales within the same cytoplasmic volume. The resulting independence of mAHP and sAHP currents allows cytoplasmic calcium to control two different and incompatible firing patterns (single spiking or bursting and pausing), depending on whether calcium influx is pulsatile or sustained. During irregular firing, calcium entry at both timescales can be detected, suggesting that an interaction between the medium and slow calcium-dependent afterhyperpolarizations may underlie this firing pattern.

Teagarden MA, Rebec GV. Subthalamic and striatal neurons concurrently process motor, limbic, and associative information in rats performing an operant task. J Neurophysiol 97: [2042][2043][2044][2045][2046][2047][2048][2049][2050][2051][2052][2053][2054][2055][2056][2057][2058] 2007. First published December 20, 2006; doi:10.1152/jn.00368.2006. Although the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is commonly assumed to be a relay for striatal (STR) output, anatomical evidence suggests the two structures are connected in parallel, raising the possibility that parallel STN and STR firing patterns mediate behavioral processes. The STR is known to play a role in associative and limbic processes, and although behavioral studies suggest that the STN may do so as well, evaluation of this hypothesis is complicated by a lack of pertinent STN physiological data. We recorded concurrent STN and STR firing patterns in rats learning an operant nose-poke task. Both structures responded in similar proportions to task events including instructive cues, discriminative nose-pokes, and sucrose reinforcement. Neuronal responses to reinforcement comprised phasic excitations preceding reinforcement and inhibitions afterward; the inhibition was attenuated when reinforcement was absent. Reinforcement responses occurred more frequently during later training sessions in which discriminative action was required, suggesting that responses were context-dependent. Nose-pokes were typically preceded by excitations; there also was a nonsignificant trend toward inhibition encoding correct nosepokes. Sustained changes in firing rate coinciding with specific task events suggested that both nuclei were encoding behavioral sequences; this is the first report of such behavior in the STN. Our findings also reveal complex STN responses to reinforcement. Thus both STN and STR neurons show concurrent involvement in motor, limbic, and associative processes. I N T R O D U C T I O NInterpretation of theoretical and empirical research within the basal ganglia is colored, if not constrained, by the notion of an architecture in which the striatum (STR) receives cortical and thalamic input and routes its output to the substantia nigra along two pathways, one of which comprises the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus (STN) (Albin et al. 1989;DeLong 1990). In this view, these nuclei had no extra-basal ganglia inputs of their own, and so they were considered relays for striatal firing patterns. However, there is considerable evidence that the STN receives direct cortical (Hartmann-von Monakow et al. 1978;Nambu et al. 1996), thalamic (Sugimoto et al. 1983), and midbrain input. Because the STN and STR receive direct input from the same cortical and midbrain regions, the STN is in a position to act as a second, independent input area of the basal ganglia. Both of these nuclei project directly to the output areas of the basal ganglia (the substantia nigra pars reticulata and internal globus pallidus), and both are reciprocally connected with the external globus pallidus. Thus ...

The autonomous firing pattern of neurons in the rat subthalamic nucleus (STN) is shaped by action potential afterhyperpolarization currents. One of these is an apamin-sensitive calcium-dependent potassium current (SK). The duration of SK current is usually considered to be limited by the clearance of calcium from the vicinity of the channel. When the cell is driven to fire faster, calcium is expected to accumulate, and this is expected to result in accumulation of calcium-dependent AHP current. We measured the time course of calcium transients in the soma and proximal dendrites of STN neurons during spontaneous firing and their accumulation during driven firing. We compared these to the time course and accumulation of AHP currents using whole-cell and perforated patch recordings. During spontaneous firing, a rise in free cytoplasmic calcium was seen after each action potential, and decayed with a time constant of about 200 ms in the soma, and 80 ms in the dendrites. At rates higher than 10 Hz, calcium transients accumulated as predicted. In addition, there was a slow calcium transient not predicted by summation of action potentials that became more pronounced at high firing frequency. Spike AHP currents were measured in voltage clamp as tail currents after 2 ms voltage pulses that triggered action currents. Apamin-sensitive AHP (SK) current was measured by subtraction of tail currents obtained before and after treatment with apamin. SK current peaked between 10 and 15 ms after an action potential, had a decay time constant of about 30 ms, and showed no accumulation. At frequencies between 5 and 200 spikes s −1 , the maximal SK current remained the same as that evoked by a single action potential. AHP current did not have time to decay between action potentials, so at frequencies above 50 spikes s −1 the apamin-sensitive current was effectively constant. These results are inconsistent with the view that the decay of SK current is governed by calcium dynamics. They suggest that the calcium is present at the SK channel for a very short time after each action potential, and the current decays at a rate set by the deactivation kinetics of the SK channel. At high rates, repetitive firing was governed by a fast apamin-insensitive AHP current that did not accumulate, but rather showed depression with increases in activation frequency. A slowly accumulating AHP current, also insensitive to apamin, was extremely small at low rates but became significant with higher firing rates.

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