In this study, we determined the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of the Mustela sibirica. The complete mitogenome of M. sibirica is 16,529 bp in length and consist of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and a D-loop region. The overall base composition of the mitochondrial DNA is 32.88%A, 13.84%G, 27.32%T, and 25.96%C. The phylogenetic tree of the family Mustelidae constructed by using mitogenome sequences from 10 mustelid species of the family Mustelidae. These results provide necessary information for molecular phylogeny and evolutionary analysis of the M. sibirica.

Background Blastocystis is a common intestinal protist with a wide range of hosts. Thus far, 38 subtypes have been identified. In recent years, wild animals have been confronted with habitat fragmentation as well as an increasing risk of zoonotic disease transmission due to human disturbance. Only limited data are available on Blastocystis infection and subtype distribution in wild rhesus macaques in China. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of Blastocystis in nine wild rhesus macaque populations in China. Methods A total of 276 faecal samples were collected from five high-altitude populations (high-altitude group [HAG]; 2800–4100 m a.s.l.) and four low-altitude populations (low-altitude group [LAG]; 5–1000 m a.s.l) of rhesus macaques. PCR-based analysis, using a new primer pair for the amplification of a 1690-bp sequence of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene, was used for prevalence and genetic diversity analysis. Result Analysis of faecal samples revealed that Blastocystis infection was common in rhesus macaques, with an infection positivity rate of 80.1% (n = 221/276 samples). There was no significant difference (P = 0.121) in positivity rate between the LAG (84.3%) and HAG (76.8%). Overall, 33 haplotypes were obtained and classified into four subtypes (STs), of which three were potentially zoonotic subtypes (ST1, 29.7%; ST2, 16.7%; ST3, 31.9%) and one that was first identified in this study and named ST39 (12.0%). The STs were distributed differently among the rhesus macaque populations, except for ST3, which was found in all populations. Phylogenetic analyses revealed two major divergent clades of ST3 for the HAG and LAG. Genetic diversity analysis showed a high genetic diversity of ST3 (haplotype diversity: 0.846; nucleotide diversity: 0.014) in the rhesus macaques, but a high genetic differentiation (FST > 0.25) and a low gene flow (Nm = 0.09) between the HAG and LAG. Conclusion Our study, which is the first investigation on Blastocystis infection in multiple wild rhesus macaque populations in China, indicates a potential risk of zoonotic transmission of Blastocystis in the study areas. Blastocystis ST3 showed high genetic diversity in wild rhesus macaques and significant genetic differentiation between the HAG and LAG. Our results provide fundamental information on the genetic diversity and prevalence of Blastocystis in wild rhesus macaque populations. Graphical Abstract

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is an obligate intracellular parasite and the most common pathogen of microsporidiosis in humans and animals. In this study, a total of 198 fecal samples were collected from 11 captive populations of Rhesus macaque in Chinese zoos, to investigate the prevalence and analyze the zoonotic potential of E. bieneusi by genotype of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) gene on the rRNA of E. bieneusi via nested PCR. Results showed that the average infection rate of E. bieneusi in the 11 populations was 13.6%, and the highest infection rate was 56.5% in the population of Xinjiang Tianshan Zoo. Seven genotypes were identified including 2 known genotypes (D and CM1) and 5 novel genotypes (Mul1, Mul2, Mul3, Mul4 and Mul5). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the novel genotypes Mul2, Mul3, Mul4 and Mul5 belonged to Group 1 showed the zoonotic potential．These findings extend the distribution of E. bieneusi genotypes and provide baseline data for controlling E. bieneusi infection.

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Background Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) is commonly used in biomedical research because of its high similarity with human beings, and understand the genetic diversity of wild macaques is necessary. Although there have been many genetic diversity reports on this species, there is still a deficiency of comprehensive understanding of genetic background due to limited sample range, especially, involving Qinghai-Tibet Plateau samples. Here, extensive sampling is conducted in macaque populations across almost all distribution areas, including China, India, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar. It also focuses on genetic differentiation, migration diffusion and population dynamics in western China. Results 57 unique haplotypes were obtained from 452 samples in 34 geographical areas and 60 mtDNA haplotypes were downloaded, resulting in a total of 117 haplotypes covering almost all macaque distribution areas. The phylogenetic analysis exhibited three major haplogroups (Clade Ⅰ~Ⅲ) with obvious geographical distribution patterns. Clade Ⅰ is mainly composed of macaques from western China, Clade Ⅱ is from central and eastern China, Vietnam, India and Nepal, and Clade Ⅲ is from Bangladesh and Myanmar. The divergence age among three Clade is 1.67 ~ 2.81 Ma. Further, Clade Ⅰ from western China is divided into five obviously divergent subclades (Sub A-E). We found macaques in western Sichuan contain two morphology subspecies: M. m. lasiotus and M. m. vestita, different from the previous one subspecies (M. m. lasiotus) report. Notably, comprehensive analysis suggested that the populations in southeastern Sichuan, eastern Yunnan and Guizhou (Sub B) may be an independent new subspecies. We also found Bangladesh may be a re-radiation central of the whole rhesus macaques, and three possible radiation routes of rhesus macaques entering China were speculated: from Yunnan to western China, from Guangxi to central and eastern China, and along the coastline to Hainan. In addition, demographic history analysis revealed the macaque population is stable and has not experienced significant population expansion. Conclusions In conclusion, this study investigated the distribution patterns of different subspecies of macaques, and proposed possible radiation routes. To our knowledge, it’s the first comprehending analysis based on almost all distribution areas of rhesus macaques.