The aim of this study was to obtain a greater insight into the association between vacations and happiness. We examined whether vacationers differ in happiness, compared to those not going on holiday, and if a holiday trip boosts post-trip happiness. These questions were addressed in a pre-test/post-test design study among 1,530 Dutch individuals. 974 vacationers answered questions about their happiness before and after a holiday trip. Vacationers reported a higher degree of pre-trip happiness, compared to non-vacationers, possibly because they are anticipating their holiday. Only a very relaxed holiday trip boosts vacationers’ happiness further after return. Generally, there is no difference between vacationers’ and non-vacationers’ post-trip happiness. The findings are explained in the light of set-point theory, need theory and comparison theory.

We examined the process of becoming suspicious and discovering ulterior motives. Participants read about a likable behavior, then sequentially received ten cues about potential ulterior motives of the actor. Participants were asked to think aloud while they were reading. Their thoughts were coded. We expected that the general impression of the actor would gradually become more negative, whereas suspicion would first increase and later decrease, concomitant with increased certainty that ulterior motives were indeed involved. Confirming our hypotheses, we found a linear effect for general impression and a quadratic effect for suspicion. Discussion focuses on the development of suspicion as a process and on the relevance of our findings to other settings in which multiple hypotheses are entertained.There is ample evidence that most people cannot distinguish honest from deceptive behavior of others (Anderson, DePaulo, Ansfield, Tickle, & Green, 1999;DePaulo & Friedman, 1998;Ekman & O'Sullivan, 1991;Malone & DePaulo, 2001). One of the reasons why people are so poor at detecting deception is a pervasive truthfulness bias: People tend to accept everything they see at face value. Gilbert, Tafarodi, and Malone (1993) proposed that people cannot comprehend something without accepting it as true (cf. Gilbert, 1991). People do have the power to assent, reject, and to suspend their judgment, but only after they have initially believed the information to which they have been exposed. 242Social Cognition, Vol. 23, No. 3, 2005, pp. 242-256 This research was supported by NWO grant 575-12.030/1. We would like to thank Steven Fein and Laurie Rudman for their helpful comments and suggestions.

PurposeMany paper-and-pencil (P&P) questionnaires have been migrated to electronic platforms. Differential item and test functioning (DIF and DTF) analysis constitutes a superior research design to assess measurement equivalence across modes of administration. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate an item response theory (IRT)-based DIF and DTF analysis to assess the measurement equivalence of a Web-based version and the original P&P format of the Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ), measuring distress, depression, anxiety, and somatization.MethodsThe P&P group (n = 2031) and the Web group (n = 958) consisted of primary care psychology clients. Unidimensionality and local independence of the 4DSQ scales were examined using IRT and Yen’s Q3. Bifactor modeling was used to assess the scales’ essential unidimensionality. Measurement equivalence was assessed using IRT-based DIF analysis using a 3-stage approach: linking on the latent mean and variance, selection of anchor items, and DIF testing using the Wald test. DTF was evaluated by comparing expected scale scores as a function of the latent trait.ResultsThe 4DSQ scales proved to be essentially unidimensional in both modalities. Five items, belonging to the distress and somatization scales, displayed small amounts of DIF. DTF analysis revealed that the impact of DIF on the scale level was negligible.ConclusionsIRT-based DIF and DTF analysis is demonstrated as a way to assess the equivalence of Web-based and P&P questionnaire modalities. Data obtained with the Web-based 4DSQ are equivalent to data obtained with the P&P version.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s11136-018-1816-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Abstract. The verb tense of a questionnaire hypothetically might influence the way people respond to its items. We examined the effects of the verb tense on the response to the Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ) in a population-based sample (N = 4,959; present tense N = 605; past tense N = 4,354). We determined whether the verb tense impacted the overall response rate, the scale structure, differential item functioning, reliability, proportions of respondents scoring above a range of cut-offs, and mean scale scores. The verb tense did not influence response rate, scale structure, item functioning, and reliability. The present tense increased the number of respondents scoring above very low cut-offs for distress and somatization. The effect on mean scale scores was limited and of little clinical importance.

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