Policymakers are increasingly focusing on the participation of children in the child protection system (CPS). However, research shows that actual practice still needs to be improved. Embedding children's participation in legislation and policy documents is one important prerequisite for achieving meaningful participation in child protection practice. In this study, the participation of children in the Dutch CPS under the new Youth Act 2015 is critically analyzed. National legislation and policy documents were studied using a model of "meaningful participation" based on article 12 of the UNCRC. Results show that the idea of children's participation is deeply embedded in the current Dutch CPS. However, Dutch policy documents do not fully cover the three dimensions of what is considered to be meaningful participation for children: informing, hearing, and involving. Furthermore, children's participation differs among the organizations included in the child protection chain. A clear overall policy concerning the participation of children in the Dutch CPS is lacking. The conclusions of this critical analysis of policy documents and the framework of meaningful participation presented may provide a basis for the embedding of meaningful participation for children in child protection systems of other countries.

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Resumen: En este artículo se revisan diversas investigaciones de carácter nacional e internacional sobre los adolescentes que egresan del sistema de protección. Se trata de jóvenes que al cumplir los 18 años estando acogidos en hogares de protección o con familias se ven inmersos en un proceso de transición a la vida adulta muy diferente al del resto de sus iguales. La investigación pone de manifiesto cómo la transición de estos menores es más breve, comprimida y acelerada que la de sus pares, presentando mayores dificultades en diferentes aspectos tales como el empleo, el alojamiento, los logros educativos, la salud física y mental, etc. Esta problemática está recabando cada día más interés a nivel internacional llevándose a cabo diversas reformas legales que en la práctica se traducen en la ampliación de la estancia en los recursos de protección, la implementación de programas de entrenamiento en habilidades para la vida independiente, la introducción de las figuras de consejeros y mentores, un mayor énfasis en la educación y el empleo, así como la creación de planes individuales de emancipación, entre otros. En nuestro país los egresados comienzan a ser tenidos en cuenta en algunas leyes autonómicas de reciente creación que hacen referencia a la necesidad de invertir esfuerzos en la transición a la vida adulta de los jóve-nes en protección. Palabras clave: Transición a la vida adulta; emancipación; independencia; protección a la infancia; acogimiento residencial; acogimiento familiar. Title:The process of transition to adulthood for youth in the child care system. Abstract: This paper reviews international and national research on young people leaving care. Research has shown that the journey to adulthood from public care is shorter, more compressed and accelerated that that of their peers. This process presents higher difficulties in different areas such as employment, accommodation, educational opportunities, physical and mental health, etc. The situation of care leavers has gained more attention internationally leading to the development of different legal advances which mean the extension of care, the implementation of independent living skills programs, the introduction of mentoring programs, the emphasis on educational and employment services and the creation of personal transition plans, among other changes. In Spain, this topic has started to receive some attention in recent regional legislation which highlights the need to invest more efforts in the transition to adulthood of young people leaving care. Key words: Transition to adulthood; leaving care; independent living; child care; foster care; residential care. IntroducciónEn los últimos años ha aumentado de forma considerable la atención desde el ámbito práctico y la investigación sobre la transición a la vida independiente de los adolescentes que cumplen 18 años estando bajo una medida de protección, bien sea de acogimiento residencial o familiar. Alcanzar la mayoría de edad en estos casos supone el cese de la medida protectora de la administraci...

Delta(24(28))-Sterols are end products of a mono C-methylation pathway catalyzed by the native Delta(24(25))- to Delta(24(28))-sterol methyl transferase (SMT) enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using a Tyr(81) to Phe mutant SMT enzyme of S. cerevisiae, generated by site-directed mutagenesis of a highly conserved residue in the sterol binding site, we found that several Delta(24(25))- and Delta(24(28))-sterols, which are not substrates for the native protein, were catalyzed to mono- and bis-C24-alkylated side chains. The mutant protein behaved similarly to the native protein in chromatography and in binding zymosterol, the preferred substrate. Zymosterol was converted to fecosterol by the Y81F mutant protein with similar turnover efficiency as the native protein (K(m) = 12 &mgr;M and k(cat) = 0.01 s(-)(1)); trace 24-ethyl sterols were detected from these incubations. 4alpha-Methyl zymosterol, which is not a normal substrate for the wild-type SMT enzyme, was converted to 4alpha-methyl fecosterol in high yield. When fecosterol and 4alpha-methyl fecosterol were assayed individually at saturating concentrations only fecosterol served as an effective substrate for the second C-transfer step (K(m) = 38 &mgr;M and k(cat) = 0.002 s(-)(1)), suggesting that successive C-methylation of Delta(24(28))-substrates is limited by product release and that molecular recognition of sterol features involves hydrogen bond formation. Isomeric 24-ethyl sterol olefins generated from 24(28)-methylene cholesterol were characterized by chromatographic (GC and HPLC) and spectral methods (MS and (1)H NMR), viz., fucosterol, isofucosterol, and clerosterol. Changes in rate of C-methylation and product distributions resulting from deuterium substitution at C28 were used to establish the kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) for the various deprotonations leading to C24-methylene, C24-ethylidene, and C24-ethyl sterols. An isotope effect on C28 methyl deprotonation generated during the first C(1)-transfer was detected with zymosterol and desmosterol paired with AdoMet and [(2)H(3)-methyl]AdoMet. A similar experiment to test for a KIE generated during the second C(1)-transfer reaction with AdoMet paired with 24(28)-methylenecholesterol and [28-(2)H(2)]24(28)-methylene cholesterol indicated an inverse isotope effect associated with C27 deprotonation. Alteration in the proportion of the C24 alkylated olefinic products generated by the pure Y81F mutant resulted from the suppression of the formation of Delta(24(28))-ethylidene sterols (C28 deprotonation) by a primary deuterium isotope effect with a compensating stimulation of the formation of 24-ethyl sterols (C27 deprotonation). Kinetic study on the rate of product formation indicated a normal KIE of k(H)/k(D) = 2.62 for the first C(1)-transfer. Alternatively, an inverse KIE was established with k(H)/k(D) = 0.9 for the second C(1)-transfer resulting from conversion of the 24(28)-double bond (sp(2) hybridization) to a 24beta-ethyl group (sp(3) hybridization). From the structures and stereochemical assignmen...