Microwave (MW) technology can be powerful for electrification and process intensification but limited fundamental understanding of scalability and design principles hinders its effective use. In this work, we build a continuous-flow microreactor inside a commercial single-mode MW applicator and the corresponding computational fluid dynamics model to simulate the temperature profile. The model is in good agreement with experiments for various microreactor dimensions and operating conditions. The model indicates that MW heating is greatly influenced by reactor geometry as well as the operating parameters. We observe a strong correlation between parameters and develop a gradient boost regression tree model to predict the outlet temperature accurately. This model is then applied to optimize the dimensions and operating conditions to maximize the outlet temperature and energy efficiency, resulting in a Pareto optimal. We demonstrate computationally and experimentally that it is possible to surpass the Pareto optimal and achieve an energy efficiency of ∼90% or greater at temperatures relevant for liquid-phase chemistry via salting of the solvent. The present methodology can be applied to other complex MW reactors. The combined numerical and experimental approach provides insights into and a framework for scale-up and optimization.

Growth of high quality, dense carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays via catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) has been largely limited to catalysts supported on amorphous alumina or silica. To overcome the challenge of conducting CNT growth from catalysts supported on conductive substrates, we explored a two-step surface modification that involves ion beam bombardment to create surface porosity and deposition of a thin AlxOy barrier layer to make the surface basic. To test the efficacy of our approach on a non-oxide support, we focus on modification of 316 stainless steel (SS), a well-known inactive substrate for CNT growth. Our study reveals that ion beam bombardment of SS has the ability to reduce film thickness of the AlxOy barrier layer required to grow CNTs from Fe catalysts to 5 nm, which is within the threshold for the substrate to remain conductive. Additionally, catalysts supported on ion beam-damaged SS with the same AlxOy thickness show improved particle formation, catalyst stability, and CNT growth efficiency, as well as producing CNTs with higher quality and density. Under optimal reaction conditions, this modification approach can lead to CNT growth on other nontraditional substrates and potentially benefit applications that require CNTs be grown on a conductive substrate.

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Sustainability is vital in solving global societal problems. Still, it requires a holistic view by considering renewable energy and carbon sources, recycling waste streams, environmentally friendly resource extraction and handling,...

Microwaves (MWs) can enable the electrification and intensification of chemical manufacturing. They have been applied to various unit separations, such as drying, distillation, and extraction, entailing gas–liquid and solid–liquid systems. However, a limited quantitative understanding of MW-heated liquid–liquid biphasic systems related to extraction exists. This work measures the temporal and spatial temperature difference between an aqueous and an organic phase in batch and continuous microfluidic modes. We demonstrate permanent temperature differences between phases over 35 °C and spatiotemporal periodic and quasiperiodic oscillations modulated by the flow patterns. The temperature differences are primarily driven by the faster absorption rate of MW irradiation by the aqueous phase versus the slower heat transfer from the aqueous phase to the organic phase. These are amplified by low specific interfacial area and modifications of the electromagnetic field. We employ a multiphysics model to predict the temperature difference in a batch system. The model is in good agreement with the experiments. We demonstrate a strong effect of input power, dielectric properties of organic solvents, the volume of solvents, and the volume ratio between phases on the temperature difference. A simple analytical model describes the temperature difference and provides design principles. The combined approach offers new insights into the design and optimization of the MW-heated biphasic systems.