The study explores the pathways and mechanisms of the relation between employment conditions and health inequalities. A significant amount of published research has proved that workers in several risky types of labor--precarious employment, unemployment, informal labor, child and bonded labor--are exposed to behavioral, psychosocial, and physio-pathological pathways leading to physical and mental health problems. Other pathways, linking employment to health inequalities, are closely connected to hazardous working conditions (material and social deprivation, lack of social protection, and job insecurity), excessive demands, and unattainable work effort, with little power and few rewards (in salaries, fringe benefits, or job stability). Differences across countries in the social contexts and types of jobs result in varying pathways, but the general conceptual model suggests that formal and informal power relations between employees and employers can determine health conditions. In addition, welfare state regimes (unionization and employment protection) can increase or decrease the risk of mortality, morbidity, and occupational injury. In a multilevel context, however, these micro- and macro-level pathways have yet to be fully studied, especially in middle- and low-income countries. The authors recommend some future areas of study on the pathways leading to employment-related health inequalities, using worldwide standard definitions of the different forms of labor, authentic data, and a theoretical framework.

Standard full-time permanent employment-providing a minimal degree of stability, income sustainability, workers' empowerment, and social protection-has declined in the high-income countries, while it was never the norm in the rest of the world. Consequently, work is increasingly affecting population health and health inequalities, not only as a consequence of harmful working conditions, but also because of employment conditions. Nevertheless, the health consequences of employment conditions are largely neglected in research. The authors describe five types of employment conditions that deviate from standard full-time permanent employment--precarious employment, unemployment, informal employment, forced employment or slavery, and child labor--and their health consequences, from a worldwide perspective. Despite obvious problems of measurement and international comparability, the findings show that, certainly in the low-income countries, these conditions are largely situated in informality, denying any possible standard of safety, protection, sustainability, and workers' rights. Considerable numbers of the world's working people are affected in geographically and socioeconomically unequal ways. This clearly relates nonstandard employment conditions to health equity consequences. In the future, governments and health agencies should establish more adequate surveillance systems, research programs, and policy awareness regarding the health effects of these nonstandard employment conditions.

HCU performed at the point of care by FDs with remote expert support interpretation using a web-based system is feasible, rapid and useful for detecting significant echocardiographic abnormalities and reducing the number of unnecessary echocardiographic studies.

ResumenEl incremento de comportamientos agresivos y violentos en las escuelas es una realidad en estos últimos años caracterizados por profundas transformaciones sociales. La escuela como institución socializadora debe responder a las demandas de la sociedad. Se presenta en este artículo un estudio cuyos objetivos se centran en conocer los conflictos y conductas violentas que existen en las aulas, formar a los profesores ante esta situación a través de la investigación-acción, aplicar técnicas de grupos para detectar y resolver dichas conductas, elaborar propuestas de prevención de conductas conflictivas para favorecer un buen clima educativo y realizar propuestas concretas para promover la educación para la convivencia. Para ello, se ha recogido información de un total de cuarenta y un centros educativos por todo el territorio español. La muestra objeto de estudio está constituida por alumnos y profesores de primaria y secundaria. Se opta por una perspectiva multimé-todo; se ha utilizado grupos de discusión, cuestionarios y técnicas de grupos en un proceso de investigación-acción, para reflexionar acerca de la práctica diaria docente y detectar y analizar las distintas conductas conflictivas del alumnado. Para finalizar con propuestas concretas para prevenir las conductas violentas y fomentar la convivencia.

The authors describe the major methods and sources of information used in the EMCONET study for researching global, employment-related health inequalities. A systematic review of the literature provides valuable knowledge for research in this area. However, the limited number of studies, the poor quality of methods used, and a lack of theories or concepts have produced inconsistent results. To minimize bias from these limitations and to reach a comprehensive understanding of the complexity and health effects of global employment conditions, this article outlines key strategies for a synthetic, comprehensive, participatory approach: adapting transdisciplinary knowledge acquisition, building a theoretical model, employing multiple sources for data collection, and using a variety of methods (qualitative/ quantitative studies and narrative knowledge). This approach provides solutions to important research and policy needs regarding the global context of key employment relations, social mechanisms, and health inequalities. The strategies are adapted to synthesize input from several disciplines (epidemiology, sociology, and political science), social actors, and institutions. The study's main sources of information are a variety of digital, bibliographic databases; the authors reviewed the scientific literature from 1985 to 2008 and books, reports, and other documents from 2000 to 2008.