Evidence of a causal relationship between individual education and religiosity is limited in developing countries  We use the 1978 education reform in Indonesia to examine the impact of completed years of education on religiosity in later life  An additional year of schooling reduces self-reported religiousness and solitary religious acts  It also reduces the influence of religious factors on voting when they elect the local leaders and the president  Reform, which promotes the access to education, may have an externality on the political economy in Islamic countries.

Indonesia has serious traffic jams. This study uses data from 19 Indonesian toll roads over 2008-2015 to calculate the effects of Indonesia's historic recent fuel subsidy reforms on motor vehicle travel. The timing of the reforms was determined by budgetary and political factors, providing a suitable setting for estimating a causal effect. We control for a broad set of other factors potentially influencing traffic flows. Estimates using monthly data suggest an immediate fuel price elasticity of motor vehicle flows on the roads in our study of -0.1, increasing to -0.2 when responses over a year are considered. We estimate that Indonesia's fuel subsidy reforms of 2013 and 2014 had reduced traffic pressure on these roads in the second half of 2015 by around 10% relative to the counterfactual without reform. A move to an adequate fuel excise system could contribute to more free-flowing traffic, while generating revenue for infrastructure and other investment.

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