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Scanning spreading resistance microscopy (SSRM) is used to determine the complete two-dimensional carrier profile of fully processed 0.29 μm p- and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors with various source/drain implants. A comparison is made between the quantified profiles determined using SSRM and the profiles extracted from the electrical device characteristics using an inverse modeling technique. This comparison includes source/drain and well implants, epilayers, and field implants. The data are compared in terms of depth precision and carrier-concentration accuracy and show a good agreement. This article also addresses the limitations and possible artifacts of both methods.

Purpose of reviewInfluenza vaccines are the most useful strategy for preventing influenza illness, especially in the setting of the COVID-19 pandemic. For the coming year (2021/2022) all vaccines will be quadrivalent and contain two influenza A strains [(H1N1)pdm09-like and (H3N2)-like viruses] and two influenza B strains (Victoria lineage-like and Yamagata lineage-like viruses). However, the currently licensed have suboptimal efficacy due to the emergence of new strains and vaccine production limitations. In this review, we summarize the current recommendations as well as new advancements in influenza vaccinations.Recent findingsRecent advances have been aimed at moving away from egg-based vaccines and toward cell culture and recombinant vaccines. This removes egg adaptations that decrease vaccine efficacy, removes the reliance on egg availability and decreases the time necessary to manufacture vaccines. However, even more radical changes are needed if we are to reach the ultimate goal of a universal vaccine capable of providing long-lasting protection against all or at least most influenza strains. We discuss various strategies, including using more stable influenza antigens such as the hemagglutinin stalk and internal proteins as well as new adjuvants, new vaccine formulations, and DNA/RNA-based vaccines that are currently being developed.SummaryThe currently available vaccines have suboptimal efficacy and do not provide adequate protection against drifted and shifted strains. Thus, the development of a universal influenza vaccine that induces long-lasing immunity and protects against a broad range of strains is crucial.