Apoptosis happens continuously for millions of cells along with the active removal of apoptotic debris in order to maintain tissue homeostasis. In this respect, efferocytosis, i.e., the process of dead cell clearance, is orchestrated through cell exposure of a set of “find me,” “eat me,” and “tolerate me” signals facilitating the engulfment of dying cells through phagocytosis by macrophages and dendritic cells. The clearance of dead cells via phagocytes is of utmost importance to maintain the immune system tolerance to self-antigens. Accordingly, this biological activity prevents the release of autoantigens by dead cells, thus potentially suppressing the undesirable autoreactivity of immune cells and the appearance of inflammatory autoimmune disorders as systemic lupus erythematous and rheumatoid arthritis. In the present study, the apoptosis pathways and their immune regulation were reviewed. Moreover, efferocytosis process and its impairment in association with some autoimmune diseases were discussed.

Successful protein expression in Escherichia coli necessitates a broad knowledge about physicochemical properties of recombinant proteins, selection among common strains of Escherichia coli and vectors, as well as factors related to media including time, temperature, and inducer.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is known as a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with the reduction of dopamine-secreting neurons and the formation of Lewy bodies in the substantia nigra and basal ganglia routes. Aging, as well as environmental and genetic factors, are considered as disease risk factors that can make PD as a complex one. Epigenetics means studying heritable changes in gene expression or function, without altering the underlying DNA sequence. Multiple studies have shown the association of epigenetic variations with onset or progression of various types of diseases. DNA methylation, posttranslational modifications of histones and presence of microRNA (miRNA) are among epigenetic processes involved in regulating pathways related to the development of PD. Unlike genetic mutations, most epigenetic variations may be reversible or preventable. Therefore, the return of aberrant epigenetic events in different cells is a growing therapeutic approach to treatment or prevention. Currently, there are several methods for treating PD patients, the most important of which are drug therapies. However, detection of genes and epigenetic mechanisms involved in the disease can develop appropriate diagnosis and treatment of the disease before the onset of disabilities and resulting complications. The main purpose of this study was to review the most important epigenetic molecular mechanisms, epigenetic variations in PD, and epigenetic-based therapies.

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