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The IA frameworks outlined below are conceptual models that identify and delineate the main elements of each theme and their causal connections, capturing the structure and functioning of the system. Each framework maps out assumptions about the process by which change occurs from interventions or activities through to the targeted outcomes. We took the perspective of an individual farmer or farmer group (referred to as the actor) when defining objectives and outcomes and not, for example, that of an NGO, government or research body. In doing so, we looked beyond the outcomes (e.g. increased income) that are often considered by external bodies, and recognise that each actor has a different set of needs and wants. Anticipated (desired) outcomes or emergent outcomes attained from agriculture, that support the capacity of the actor to meet their underlying goals, can include not only goods and services purchased through income, such as health care, housing maintenance or improvements, education, food and other expenditures, but also social and psychological outcomes such as improved relationships, a sense of freedom, happiness and respect.

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The Working Paper series is a continuation of the formerly named Discussion Paper series; the numbering of the papers continued without interruption or change. ADBI's working papers reflect initial ideas on a topic and are posted online for discussion. Some working papers may develop into other forms of publication.

Given the structure and functioning of agricultural markets and the policies and institutional space, smallholder farmers in India often face the risks of strategic failures, which force them to either opt for distress selling, operate as fringe retailers or participate in the existing supply or value chains on given conditions. In this perspective, this paper examines if smallholder farmers' collectives can potentially strengthen their market position vis-à-vis other individual players and enable them to explore strategic options in a greater way. On the basis of the structure-conduct-performance theory and field experiences from two selected villages of West Bengal (India), the paper finds that the collectivization of smallholder farmers helps in exploring a larger set of strategic options for better outcomes. Further, the choice of the strategy set varies across the collectives depending on their composition, functioning, and resource endowments. Nevertheless, there is a possibility of strategic failures because of intra-as well as intercollective conflicts and competition from other players. The success in