In the dentate gyrus (DG) of the adult mouse hippocampus, a substantial number of new cells are generated daily, but only a subset of these survive and differentiate into mature neurons, whereas the majority undergo programmed cell death (PCD). However, neither the intracellular machinery required for adult stem cell-derived neuronal death nor the biological implications of the significant loss of these newly generated cells have been examined. Several markers for apoptosis failed to reveal cell death in Bax-deficient mice, and this, together with a progressive increase in neuron number in the DG of the Bax knock-out, indicates that Bax is critical for the PCD of adult-generated hippocampal neurons. Whereas the proliferation of neural progenitor cells was not altered in the Bax-knock-out, there was an accumulation of doublecortin, calretinin ϩ , and neuronal-specific nuclear protein ϩ postmitotic neurons, suggesting that Baxmediated PCD of adult-generated neurons takes place during an early phase of differentiation. The absence of PCD in the adult also influenced the migration and maturation of adult-generated DG neurons. These results suggest that PCD in the adult brain plays a significant role in the regulation of multiple aspects of adult neurogenesis.

A considerable number of new neurons are generated daily in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the adult hippocampus, but only a subset of these survive, as many adult-generated neurons undergo programmed cell death (PCD). However, the significance of PCD in the adult brain for the functionality of DG circuits is not known. Here we examined the electrophysiological and behavioral characteristics of Bax-KO mice in which PCD of post-mitotic neurons is prevented. The continuous increase in DG cell numbers in Bax-KO mice, resulted in the readjustment of afferent and efferent synaptic connections, represented by age-dependent reductions in the dendritic arborization of DG neurons and in the synaptic contact ratio of mossy fibers (MF) with CA3 dendritic spines. These neuroanatomical changes were associated with reductions in synaptic transmission and reduced performance in a contextual fear memory task in 6-month old Bax-KO mice. These results suggest that the elimination of excess DG neurons via Bax-dependent PCD in the adult brain is required for the normal organization and function of the hippocampus.

Nerve injury-induced neuronal death may occur after accidental trauma or nerve inflammation. Although the response to facial root avulsion has been examined in rodent models, there are conflicting results as to whether motoneuron (MN) death is mediated by apoptosis or necrosis. We examined the response of MNs and proximal nerves after facial nerve avulsion in adult mice. Following facial nerve avulsion in 4-5-week-old mice, we observed a progressive reduction of MNs such that by 4 weeks less than 10% of avulsed MNs remained compared with the control side. The profile of MN degeneration was distinct from axotomy-induced responses. For example, the onset of MN death was more rapid, and the extent of MN loss was greater compared with axotomy. Furthermore, the degeneration of oligodendrocytes and the activation of microglia were increased in the proximal nerve after avulsion. Ultrastructural observations suggested that root avulsion mainly induces non-apoptotic neuronal death, although a small subset of neurons appeared to die via apoptosis. To evaluate the contribution of apoptotic death, we evaluated MN responses in Bax-knockout (KO) mice in which neurons are rescued from apoptotic death. Surprisingly, although the majority of Bax-KO mice exhibited only a moderate MN loss after avulsion, a subset of Bax-KO mice (25%) exhibited extensive MN death and injury-induced changes in the nerve that were indistinguishable from events in wild-type littermates. These results suggest that both Bax-dependent and -independent forms of cell death are evoked by root avulsion, and that programmed cell death may be involved in triggering a robust necrotic response.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the motivation, healing purpose, healing process and healing effect of forest through experiential essays. These essays of 34 forest experience were collected from 2014 to 2015 at Forestry Administration Office. Five steps of analysis were used including self-observation, self-description, selfdiscovery, equality and differentiation, and verification. The results of the study are as follows. First, there were psychological instability factors such as depression, bipolar disorder, helplessness, social phobia, and social maladjustment, and these factors were related to physical illness or family history of patients. Second, the process of self-discovering by self-observation and self-description in forest experience was expressed, and this experience is interpreted to strongly support the effects of various forest healing proved empirically in previous studies. Third, the patients experienced similar sufferings such as depression, anxiety, and frustration, but they described as experiencing the process optimized for each unique characteristic in the motivation, necessity, accessibility, and program utilization of each experience. Ultimately, the participants felt positive change in senses and emotions such as refreshing, comfort, relaxation, and euphoria through the natural vitality of forests that is inhaled through the five senses. They learnt to reflect on themselves and shame, and they could rediscover the value and meaning of life while meaningfully recognizing the problems attributed to them.