This article reports the results of the European 'DAFFODIL'' (Dynamic Assessment of Functioning and Oriented at Development and Inclusive Learning) Project on the question of how functional and learning assessment systems facilitate or inhibit participation of children with developmental difficulties in inclusive education. Questionnaires were sent to medical, psychological, educational professionals, and parents in Sweden, Portugal, Hungary, Belgium, Romania, Norway, and the Virgin Islands. Interviews and focus groups were organized. Results (95%) showed that static standardized psychometric tests of intellectual, behavioural, and language functioning were mainly used, with the WISC-III being the most frequent test applied. Less than 5% of the 166 professionals in our sample used formative assessment and contextual observation to reveal learning or developmental potential in a process-oriented way. Experts were generally not satisfied with current assessment practices. Reported weaknesses included lack of time, human resources, materials, cooperation, and follow-up. Assessment practice was mainly used to determine whether a child should be placed in a special needs programme, a special school, or an institutional setting, depending on whether a country has inclusive education practice or not. Parents were satisfied with static functional assessment when its purpose was to obtain disability benefits (financial, special education resources, recognition), but were unhappy with the negative outlook of reports. The main complaint of teachers and parents was about the poverty of recommendations on how to work with the child. Our conclusion is that the current practice of standardized psychometric testing seems to contribute to barriers to learning if it is used in a deterministic or predictive way. In this regard, dynamic and functional assessment methods that are qualitatively oriented seem promising in addressing the issues of learning and development in a different way. The methods also contribute to an understanding of the child's needs in learning and development. However, interpretation and communication of assessment results in a way that emphasizes a more adequate and challenging educational intervention for the child seems to be central.

The effects of computer-based Working Memory (WM) training using two training procedures were examined among sixty-four primary-school children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). Measures of general cognitive ability, auditory and visuospatial working memory, arithmetic ability, and reading and writing skills were gathered and analysed. The referred group of SEN children predominantly had lower performance in auditory WM, arithmetics and reading and writing skills. The SEN children within respective school were randomized into either an active WM training group or a control group and ten schools participating in the WM training study were randomized into one of two different training conditions. At five schools the SEN children received regular WM training and at the other five schools the children received WM training with the addition of metacognitive strategy training. Results showed a significant difference in WM performance during training in favor of the metacognitive intervention. Furthermore, transfer effects occurred on visuospatial WM measures at posttest and at 6-month follow-up. Post-hoc tests showed that the effects pertained only to the metacognitive intervention. No transfer to arithmetic or reading and writing skills occurred after training in the two training conditions. Results were discussed in terms of metacognitive factors being important in optimizing performance in WM training, and that such factors should be taken into consideration when designing interventions for children with SEN. It is also suggested that in referral of children with SEN to remediation with WM training the WM profiles should be taken into consideration to a greater degree.

This study examined the contribution of working memory (WM) above and beyond other domain general (e.g., processing speed; PS) and domain specific abilities (e.g., Approximate Number System; ANS) for mathematical performance in low achieving (LA) preschool children. Pre-schoolers aged 3 to 5 years (N = 139) were included in the study. Children performing below the 35th percentile on a Test of Early Mathematical Abilities (TEMA-3) were considered LA and at potential risk for later mathematical learning difficulties (MLD). First, the relationships between measures of simple and central executive visuospatial and verbal WM tasks (forward, backward, and dual processing tasks), ANS, PS abilities and early mathematical abilities were explored. Then, the contribution of these measures in predicting low mathematical performance was examined in several stepwise logistic regressions. The results showed that all measures were significantly correlated, and that ANS alone explained only a smaller amount of variance in low maths achievement. Surprisingly, PS did not contribute to prediction of low maths achievement and when visuo-spatial and verbal WM measures were added to the analyses they alone explained variance to a large degree. We concluded that central executive WM and particularly backward processing ability seems to play an important role in the development of mathematical abilities in LA preschool children. Results were discussed in relation to research on WM, executive functions (EF), and early mathematical development. Conclusions for early screening and intervention in preschool were also drawn.

The demands on mathematical problem-solving have increased in almost all school systems internationally and may constitute a barrier for children with special educational needs (SEN). This study explored the role of fluid reasoning (FR), working memory (WM) and complex executive function of planning (EF) in children (N = 62) referred for assessment of SEN, and specifically of risk for mathematical difficulties (MD). Performances on FR, WM and complex EF of planning were used to predict risk for MD. Results showed that planning ability predicted children at risk for MD, beyond FR or WM ability, when comparing with children not at risk for MD. It was concluded that assessing the complex EF of planning in addition to FR and WM ability is crucial in identifying children at risk for MD. The importance of understanding how planning ability affects children's mathematical problem-solving is discussed, in relation to assessment and teaching practices.

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