This research describes a method that initially establishes a mand repertoire as the first component in producing echoic and tact repertoires in young children with limited verbal repertoires. The subjects were 3 nonverbal children with autism, aged 2.5 to 3.5 years. The results indicated that establishing a mand repertoire as the starting point for echoic training produced the acquisition of an initial echoic repertoire in all 3 children within the first 10 sessions. Two of the children also began tacting during the same period. A mand repertoire was acquired by all subjects by the sixth session. Negative vocal behavior was rapidly reduced without the use of aversive contingencies by shaping inapproapriate vocalizations into acceptable vocal mands. Our discussion analyzes those contingencies that contribute to the effectiveness of the manding procedure and compares this procedure with the conventional vocal imitation model. We also discuss variables that may contribute to the long-term success of language training programs and describe strategies for preventing language delay in typical infants and children.
This paper analyzes autism as a contingency-shaped disorder of verbal behavior. Contingencies of reinforcement in effect during the first to third year of a child's life may operate to establish and maintain those behaviors that later result in a diagnosis of autism. While neurobiological variables may, in some cases, predispose some children to be more or less responsive to environmental variables than others, our analysis suggests that reliance on neurobiological variables as causal factors in autism is unnecessary. We present six paradigms that may play critical etiologic roles in the development of behaviors labeled as autistic. Recognizing these contingencies and their resulting behaviors during the first two years of a child's life may contribute substantially to earlier identification, more effective treatment and, quite possibly, to the development of Applied Behavior Analysis programs for the prevention of autism that could be implemented immediately. Conceptualizing autism as a contingency-shaped disorder of verbal behavior may provide a new and potentially more effective paradigm for behavioral research and treatment in autism.
Delays in acquiring age-appropriate verbal repertoires in preschool children with no known organic etiology may be explained by defective or absent behavior-environmental contingencies. This paper presents six possible behavioral paradigms that describe verbal episodes between parents and their preschool children and how these interactions may inhibit or prevent the acquisition of verbal behavior. These paradigms are contrasted with parent-child interactions that typically result in age-appropriate verbal repertoires. Identifying the reinforcement contingencies that produce delays in acquisition of verbal behavior could lead to the development of more effective behavioral programs for remediating nonorganic language delay. Recommendations for prevention, treatment and total recovery from functional verbal delay and associated mental retardation are presented. The relation between contingencyshaped and rule-govemed behavior in the shaping of verbal behavior is discussed.
Lack of a standard methodology has been one of the major obstacles preventing advancement of behavior analytic research in verbal behavior. This article presents a standard method for the analysis, recording, and control of verbal behavior that overcomes several major methodological problems that have hindered operant research in verbal behavior. The system divides all verbal behavior into four functional response classes, correct, error, no response, and inappropriate behavior, from which all vocal responses of a subject may be classified and consequated. The effects of contingencies of reinforcement on verbal operants within each category are made immediately visible to the researcher as changes in frequency of response. Incorporating frequency of response within each category as the unit of response allows both rate and probability of verbal response to be utilized as basic dependent variables. This method makes it possible to record and consequate verbal behavior in essentially the same way as any other operant response. It may also facilitate an experimental investigation of Skinner's verbal response categories.
Home-based reinforcement techniques have been used successfully to decrease a number of disruptive classroom behaviors. Few studies have been conducted, however, examining the effects of home-based reinforcement as a tool to increase positive school performance. This study examined the effects of a daily report card procedure designed to increase the completion and accuracy of in-class assignments in two youngsters described as having a behavioral history of difficulty in completing seat work, a problem commonly encountered in elementary school classes. The use of the procedure produced immediate significant changes in rates of both completion and accuracy for the two participants in the study. Results and problems of using the home-based reinforcement procedure are discussed.Classroom problems such as disruptive behavior and failure to complete assigned work traditionally have been difficult problems for teachers to control. Reinforcement procedures such as token economies and point systems with privilege and item exchanges have, in many cases, provided an answer to such problems (McLaughlin & Malaby, 1972a,b). There is substantial research in support of their value (McLaughlin & Malaby, 1974). Some drawbacks to the use of these methods, however, are the facts that such techniques are frequently time consuming, and, therefore, not economical for the classroom teacher.A potential solution to this problem lies in the use of home-based reinforcement procedures. Research into the use of home-based reinforcement has demonstrated the value of such procedures. Surrogate "Teaching-Parents," natural parents, and special education teachers have been trained successfully to alter behaviors in home environment settings and classrooms through the administration of contingency management systems based in the home.In a study by Christopherson, Arnold, Hill, and Quilitch (1972), two sets of natural parents were trained to administer a token economy in the home. Subjects were 5 children between the ages of 5 and 10 from two separate families. Problem behaviors included refusal to help with household chores, inappropriate verbal behavior toward parents, and bickering between children. In the first family, the children were given points contingent on the completion of chores. Point fines were levied by parents for behaviors such as bickering, teasing, and whining. Points could be traded by the children to purchase licenses that permitted them basic in-home privileges, trips to drive-in movies, or picnics. Data were gathered by the parents.Results reflected a marked decrease in the incidence of undesirable behaviors, such as whining and bickering, and a significant increase in the completion of chores. A similar point system used with the children of the second family produced marked success in helping increase number of chores completed.Requests for reprints should be sent to Barry M. Drew,
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