The formation of adipocytes during embryogenesis has been largely understudied. However, preadipocytes appear to originate from multipotent mesenchymal stromal/stem cells which migrate from the mesoderm to their anatomical localization. Most studies on adipocyte formation (adipogenesis) have used preadipocytes derived from adult stem/stromal cells. Adipogenesis consists of two phases, namely commitment and terminal differentiation. This review discusses the role of signalling pathways, epigenetic modifiers, and transcription factors in preadipocyte commitment and differentiation into mature adipocytes, as well as limitations in our understanding of these processes. To date, a limited number of transcription factors, genes and signalling pathways have been described to regulate preadipocyte commitment. One reason could be that most studies on adipogenesis have used preadipocytes already committed to the adipogenic lineage, which are therefore not suitable for studying preadipocyte commitment. Conversely, over a dozen molecular players including transcription factors, genes, signalling pathways, epigenetic regulators, and microRNAs have been described to be involved in the differentiation of preadipocytes to adipocytes; however, only peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma has proven to be clinically relevant. A detailed understanding of how the molecular players underpinning adipogenesis relate to adipose tissue function could provide new therapeutic approaches for addressing obesity without compromising adipose tissue function.

Despite obesity being a major health concern, information on the early clinical changes that occur in plasma and tissues during obesity development and the influence of sexual dimorphism is lacking. This study investigated changes in tissue and organ histology, macrophage infiltration, plasma hormones, lipid, and chemokine and cytokine levels in mice fed on a high fat diet for 11-weeks. An increase in adiposity, accompanied by adipocyte hypertrophy and macrophage infiltration, was observed to be significantly greater in males than females. Important changes in cell morphology and histology were noted in the lungs, liver, kidney, spleen, and heart, which may indicate early signs for developing obesity associated comorbidities. Leptin, but not adiponectin, was significantly altered during weight gain. Additionally, leptin, but not adiposity, correlated with insulin levels. Interestingly, GM-CSF, TNFα, and IL-12 (p70) were not produced in the early stages of obesity development. Meanwhile, the production of MCP-1, IP-10, RANTES, IL-10, IL-6, KC, and IL-9 were greatly influenced by sexual dimorphism. Importantly, IL-6/IL-10 axis of anti-inflammatory cytokine regulation was observed only in females and may account for their significantly lower weight gain compared to males. This study provides new knowledge on how sexual dimorphism may influence the development of obesity and associated comorbidities.

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Increased anthropogenic activity and subsequent environmental exposure to heavy metals induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which increases oxidative stress and the risk of associated diseases. The aim of this study, in a subacute model of toxicity, was to investigate the effects of copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and mercury (Hg) alone and in combination on the liver tissue of male Sprague-Dawley rats, exposed orally to 100 times the World Health Organization's acceptable water limits of each metal. General histological alterations as well as ultrastructural changes were investigated using light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) respectively. Exposure to Cu, Mn and Hg, alone and in combinations, caused hydrophic swelling of the hepatocytes, dilation of the sinusoids, formation of binucleated hepatocytes with an increased inflammatory cell accumulation at the portal triad. Increased collagen deposition with associated fibrosis was also observed.Evaluation of hepatocyte ultrastructure revealed mitochondrial membrane damage and inner membrane swelling especially for hepatocytes exposed to Mn. Extracellular vesicle (EV) formation was observed in the liver tissue of all exposed rats. Furthermore, increased damage observed for metal combinations was possibly due to synergism. In conclusion, Cu, Mn and Hg alone and as part of a mixtures causes cellular damage, inflammation and fibrosis increasing the risk of associated diseases.

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