The article devoted to specific features of relations of the Russian Empire with the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva on the base of treaties signed in 1873, which are considered to fix the status of these Central Asian polities as Russian protectorates. The author examined preconditions of signing of these treaties, analyses the treaties of Russia with Khiva and Bukhara, gives a formal legal characterization of their form and content. The article is an attempt to explain the reasons of including by Russian authors in these treaties of specific statements which were to provide the control of the Russian Empire under the policy of the khanates in different areas as well as further practical implementation of these statements. Sometimes these reasons are not so obvious and it makes the author analyze not only literal sense of treaties, but also their “spirit”, i. e. implication within the context of Russo-Bukharan and Russo-Khivan relations before and after the establishment of the protectorate. The analysis of historical sources (legal acts, another official documents, contemporary testimonies, periodicals) and the results of previously made research allows the author to conclude that relations of the Russian Empire with authorities of Bukhara and Khiva were a complex of activities within the policy of the frontier modernization with due regard for specific features of political-legal and social-economical position of the khanates and intricate international situation as well as contradictions of different authorities in the Russian Empire itself.

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Research objectives: To use historical monuments of Persian origin from the 14th c. as a possible source for the political, legal, and chancellery history in the Jochid Ulus and for specific features of the status of “emir of ulus”, a type of high official in Chinggisid states. Materials and methods of research: The basic materials are yarlighs included into the “Dastur al-katib” of Muhammad b. Hindushah Nakhchivani in its Persian original as well as in German translation by J. von Hammer-Purgstall. The present work also employs other medieval sources on history of the Golden Horde and Iran in the Hulaguid and Jalayir epochs. The methods of research are historical, diplomatic, historical, legal, and comparative historical analysis which amount to an interdisciplinary approach which allows to study historical documents with the highest effectiveness. Scientific novelty: This represents the first Russian translation of the first yarligh on the appointment of the emir of ulus from the “Dastur al-katib” which is studied as a historical source, an example of Mongol chancellery practices, and as a legal monument. Results of the research: The analysis of this document allows one to reconstruct the legal status of the emir of ulus as a high official in Chinggisid states, the requirements for candidates of this position, the rights and obligations of this official, while drawing parallels between similar positions in Iran and the Golden Horde. Comparative diplomatic analysis allows one to clarify similarities in the official paper work in uluses of Hulaguids and Jochids and to confirm the common roots of chancellery traditions in these states that were heirs of the Mongol Empire.

Аннотация. Введение. В статье анализируются сведения российских путешественников об особенностях правового развития Джунгарского ханства в первой половине XVIII в. До сих пор эти источники использовались лишь для изучения политической и социально-экономической истории Джунгарии и российско-джунгарских отношений. Особенности же правового развития этого государства рассматривались исследователями преимущественно на основе сохранившихся до нашего времени немногочисленных ойратских правовых памятников и сведений китайских источников. Автор впервые предпринимает попытку историко-правового анализа сведений российских путешественников, которые лично наблюдали особенности развития различных сфер правоотношений в Джунгарском ханстве эпохи его расцвета и даже сами становились их участниками. Методы и подходы. На основе институционального и сравнительно-правового подходов исследованы записки российских дипломатов, разведчиков, торговцев, что позволило дать характеристику особенностей развития Джунгарии как «степной империи», правители которой объединяли под своей властью кочевые и оседлые народы ряда государств и регионов Центральной Азии. Превращение сравнительно небольшого кочевого государства в обширную империю с многоукладной экономикой и населением, разнообразным по языку, религии, культуре, сделало неактуальным прежнюю правовую систему ойратов, заставив их правителей обратиться к правовому регулированию новых сфер правоотношений. Исследованы, в частности, особенности правового статуса вассальных по отношению к джунгарским монархам правителей Ташкента, казахских жузов, Восточного Туркестана, правовые основы регулирования хозяйственной, торговой и иной договорной деятельности, система налогов, сборов и повинностей, преступления и наказания, организация суда и судебного процесса, некоторые особенности семейного и наследственного права. Записки российских путешественников, отражающие правовые реалии Джунгарского ханства первой половины XVIII в., позволяют существенно расширить имеющиеся представления об уровне правового развития этого государства. Автор приходит к выводу о постепенной модернизации системы правовых отношений в Джунгарском ханстве за счет активного взаимодействия с соседними странами и народами, использования их правового опыта (рецепции), которая, как и само существование Джунгарии, была насильственно прервана в результате завоевания империи Цин. Ключевые слова: Джунгарское ханство, российско-джунгарские отношения, «степные империи», записки путешественников, традиционное право, сюзеренитет и вассалитет, торговые отношения, налоговая система, преступления и наказания, суд и процесс, семейные и наследственные правоотношения Published in the Russian Federation Oriental Studies (Previous Name: Bulletin of the Kalmyk Institute for Humanities of the Russian Academy of Sciences) Has been issued as a journal since 2008

Mikhail Speranskiy, an outstanding Russian statesman and legislator of the first half of the 19th century, was Governor-General of Siberia from 1819 to 1821. The main result of this moment in his career was the government reform in Asiatic Russia as well as the formulation in 1822 of a set of codes – rules and regulations – for Siberia and its peoples. Speranskiy tried to incorporate his theories on state and law into these codifications. One of these codes was the Rules on the Siberian Kirghiz which provided for a reform of the government system of the Kazakhs (‘Kirghiz’ in the Russian pre-revolutionary tradition) of the Middle Horde, who were under the control of Siberian regional authorities. The Middle Horde became a place where Speranskiy could experiment with his ideas. Previous researchers have paid more attention to the consequences of the promulgation of the ‘Rules on the Siberian Kirghiz’ for the later history of Kazakhstan. This paper clarifies which specific ideas of Speranskiy on state and law the Rules on the Siberian Kirghiz reflect, and answers the question of whether they had practical importance. A substantial part of the ‘Rules on the Siberian Kirghiz’ was, in fact, ineffective and would not be used in practice because of Speranskiy’s lack of knowledge of the Kazakhs, and his underrating of their political and legal level. At the same time, the authority of Speranskiy in 19th century Russia as legislator and reformer was so high that his Rules on the Siberian Kirghiz remained in force until the 1860’s, when the next substantial administrative reforms of the Kazakh steppe took place.