Reading impaired first graders were given daily tutoring as a "first cut" diagnostic to aid in distinguishing between reading difficulties caused by basic cognitive deficits and those caused by experiential deficits. Reading achievement in most of these children was found to be within or above the average range after one semester of remediation. Children who were difficult to remediate performed below both children who were readily remediated and normal readers on kindergarten and first-grade tests evaluating phonological skills, but not on tests evaluating visual, semantic and syntactic skills. The results are consistent with convergent findings from previous research suggesting that reading problems in some poor readers may be caused primarily by phonological deficits. Specific reading disability is conventionally defined as severe difficulty in learning to identify printed letters and words in children who have at least average intelligence and who are not impaired by general learning difficulties

Each area of parent functioning associated with pediatric parenting stress is amenable to behavioral intervention aimed at stress reduction or control and improvement of parent psychological and child-health outcomes.

OBJECTIVE -To quantify the magnitude and pattern of cognitive difficulties in pediatric type 1 diabetes as well as the effects associated with earlier disease onset and severe hypoglycemia.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS -Pediatric studies of cognitive function since 1985 were identified for study inclusion using MEDLINE and PsycInfo. Effect size (ES, Cohen's d) between the diabetic and control groups, expressed in SD units, were calculated within cognitive domains to standardize meta-analysis test performance. RESULTS -The meta-analysis sample of 2,144 children consisted of 1,393 study subjects with type 1 diabetes and 751 control subjects from 19 studies. Overall, type 1 diabetes was associated with slightly lower overall cognition (ES Ϫ0.13), with small differences compared with control subjects across a broad range of domains, excluding learning and memory, which were similar for both groups. Learning and memory skills, both verbal and visual (Ϫ0.28 and Ϫ0.25), were more affected for children with early-onset diabetes (EOD) than late-onset diabetes (LOD), along with attention/executive function skills (Ϫ0.27). Compared with nondiabetic control subjects, EOD effects were larger, up to one-half SD lower, particularly for learning and memory (Ϫ0.49). Generally, seizures were associated with a negligible overall cognition ES of Ϫ0.06, with slight and inconsistent cognitive effects found on some measures, possibly reflecting the opposing effects of poorer versus better metabolic control.CONCLUSIONS -Pediatric diabetes generally relates to mildly lower cognitive scores across most cognitive domains. Cognitive effects are most pronounced and pervasive for EOD, with moderately lower performance compared with control subjects. Seizures are generally related to nominal, inconsistent performance differences.

Elementary and middle school children were given a large battery of tests evaluating reading subskills and reading-related cognitive abilities. These measures were used to define latent constructs representing skills and abilities believed to be important components of reading comprehension. Hypothesized relationships among these constructs were specified within the context of a structural model we call the "Convergent Skills Model of Reading Development," and developmental differences in the relative contribution made by each construct to reading comprehension performance were assessed through confirmatory factor analysis using the LISREL and AMOS programs. Results provide qualified support for the model and were interpreted as consistent with the major premises of both Gough and Tunmer's (1986) "Simple View" and Sticht's (1979) "Audread" models of reading.Because written English is an alphabetic orthography and because of the high degree of redundancy characteristic of any alphabetic orthography, the load on visual memory in print processing is extraordinary. Thus to reduce this load to manageable pro-

Elementary and middle school children were given a large battery of tests evaluating reading subskills and reading-related cognitive abilities. These measures were used to define latent constructs representing skills and abilities believed to be important components of reading comprehension. Hypothesized relationships among these constructs were specified within the context of a structural model we call the "Convergent Skills Model of Reading Development," and developmental differences in the relative contribution made by each construct to reading comprehension performance were assessed through confirmatory factor analysis using the LISREL and AMOS programs. Results provide qualified support for the model and were interpreted as consistent with the major premises of both Gough and Tunmer's (1986) "Simple View" and Sticht's (1979) "Audread" models of reading.Because written English is an alphabetic orthography and because of the high degree of redundancy characteristic of any alphabetic orthography, the load on visual memory in print processing is extraordinary. Thus to reduce this load to manageable pro-