OBJECTIVE -To quantify the magnitude and pattern of cognitive difficulties in pediatric type 1 diabetes as well as the effects associated with earlier disease onset and severe hypoglycemia.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS -Pediatric studies of cognitive function since 1985 were identified for study inclusion using MEDLINE and PsycInfo. Effect size (ES, Cohen's d) between the diabetic and control groups, expressed in SD units, were calculated within cognitive domains to standardize meta-analysis test performance. RESULTS -The meta-analysis sample of 2,144 children consisted of 1,393 study subjects with type 1 diabetes and 751 control subjects from 19 studies. Overall, type 1 diabetes was associated with slightly lower overall cognition (ES Ϫ0.13), with small differences compared with control subjects across a broad range of domains, excluding learning and memory, which were similar for both groups. Learning and memory skills, both verbal and visual (Ϫ0.28 and Ϫ0.25), were more affected for children with early-onset diabetes (EOD) than late-onset diabetes (LOD), along with attention/executive function skills (Ϫ0.27). Compared with nondiabetic control subjects, EOD effects were larger, up to one-half SD lower, particularly for learning and memory (Ϫ0.49). Generally, seizures were associated with a negligible overall cognition ES of Ϫ0.06, with slight and inconsistent cognitive effects found on some measures, possibly reflecting the opposing effects of poorer versus better metabolic control.CONCLUSIONS -Pediatric diabetes generally relates to mildly lower cognitive scores across most cognitive domains. Cognitive effects are most pronounced and pervasive for EOD, with moderately lower performance compared with control subjects. Seizures are generally related to nominal, inconsistent performance differences.

Dolphin shows and dolphin interaction programs are two types of education programs within zoological institutions used to educate visitors about dolphins and the marine environment. The current study examined the short- and long-term effects of these programs on visitors' conservation-related knowledge, attitude, and behavior. Participants of both dolphin shows and interaction programs demonstrated a significant short-term increase in knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions. Three months following the experience, participants of both dolphin shows and interaction programs retained the knowledge learned during their experience and reported engaging in more conservation-related behaviors. Additionally, the number of dolphin shows attended in the past was a significant predictor of recent conservation-related behavior suggesting that repetition of these types of experiences may be important in inspiring people to conservation action. These results suggest that both dolphin shows and dolphin interaction programs can be an important part of a conservation education program for visitors of zoological facilities.

Measures with more than 1 score per participant, when the total for each participant equals the same constant, are said to be ipsative. Ipsativity occurs when data are percentages, with each participant's total equal to 100%, or when data are ranks, with each participant's total equal to the sum of the ranks. When ipsative measures are analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA), certain sums of squares equal 0, and the average intercorrelation among measures is negative. These characteristics of ipsativity may result in violations of ANOVA assumptions, producing an inflated Type I error rate and affecting power. The purpose of this Monte Carlo study was to empirically examine the extent to which ANOVA is affected by ipsative data. Findings indicated that, with few exceptions, ANOVA worked quite well with ipsative data. Not only were Type I error rates well preserved, but power was nearly equivalent to that with nonipsative data.

Examined perceptions of the family environment in a cross-regional sample of 90 families who had children with diabetes and 89 controls. Families were classified as either traditional (intact) or nontraditional (single-parent or blended families). Parents of children with diabetes reported less family expressiveness, which was a predictor of clinically higher levels of child behavior problems than controls. Parents in nontraditional families reported lower levels of organization, less emphasis on active-recreational pursuits, and more child behavior problems than traditional families. An additive effect of diabetes and nontraditional family structure was found for children with diabetes from nontraditional families, who reported substantially less cohesion than all other groups. Nontraditional family structure was more disruptive for children with diabetes than for controls; it was the best predictor of behavior problems and was related to poorer metabolic control.

We evaluate the relation between religiousness and vengeance using multiple indicators of religiousness (religious orientation and church variables) and behavioral as well as self-reports of vengeance. Results from hierarchical regression analyses revealed that intrinsic religious orientation was negatively and extrinsic religious orientation positively related to self-reports of revenge but not to behavioral indicators of revenge. Only quest orientation was related to behavioral indicators of revenge with those higher on quest setting relatively lower levels of shock following a provocation and giving more money to an obnoxious confederate. Of the church variables, the number of religious activities was negatively and frequency of monetary donations positively related to selfreported vengeance. Only frequency of monetary donations, however, was uniquely related to one of the behavioral indicators of revenge, level of shock, with those who give more frequently also retaliating with higher levels of shock.