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Several studies have shown that behavior modification procedures aimed at a single behavior may have effects on other, nonmanipulated behaviors. A young retarded boy engaged in excessive conversation with his preschool teacher. The teacher then began to ignore his initiated conversation during free-play periods, and it decreased. In addition, (1) social behavior relative to children increased, and (2) use of girls' toys decreased during free play. Also, (3) The initial behavior modification studies tended to select and quantify a single behavior of social concern. Operations were then performed that would increase or decrease that be--havior. Thus, Allen, Hart, Buell, Harris, and increased social interactions in a shy 4-yr-old girl by having the nursery school teacher praise her when she was playing with the other children. Frequently, a child will have multiple behaviors of remedial concern. Wolf, Risley, and Mees (1964) havior modification procedures to reduce tantrums, glasses throwing, and eating disturbances in an autistic child. Also, they increased wearing glasses and appropriate verbal behavior. If such multiple behaviors are simultaneously recorded, it is possible to operate only on a single behavior and to observe any effects this operation has on the nonmanipulated behaviors. If the rates of the nonmanipulated behaviors are affected, the observed behaviors can be said to exhibit covariation and the behavior modification procedures to have produced "side-effects".Sociologists have recognized behavioral covariation in the concept of role. Within a given role, certain categories of behavior are frequently observed together, with certain other behaviors notably absent. For example, the adolescent boy, who is acquiring the masculine role, is expected to learn several classes of behaviors that initiate and facilitate social contact with girls, such as dressing well, conversational skill, proper masculine posture, etc. At the same time, he is not expected to acquire much facility with domestic and feminine skills such as infant care, shy and passive social behavior, "modest" bodily move-163 1972, 5, 163-175 NUMBER 2 (SUMMER 1972)

Group affection activities were used to increase the interaction of three autistic children with their nonhandicapped peers in an integrated early childhood setting. Peer interaction increased during free play when the affection activities were conducted, but not when similar activities without the affection component were used. This interaction included initiations by both the autistic and nonhandicapped children, with reciprocal interactions occurring more frequently with nonhandicapped peers who had participated in the affection activities.

Group care settings for dependent people must be organized to facilitate delivery of responsive care and to prevent inadvertant neglect or deliberate abuse. Accordingly, in an infant and a toddler day-care center, an open environment was examined as a means to increase the visibility of children to staff and of staff-child interactions to the supervisor, and to investigate potential adverse effects of the open environment on infants' and toddlers' activities. These studies demonstrated that: (1) an open environment markedly decreased the amount of time a child could not be seen by any adult and the amount of time staff members' activities were not visible to the supervisor, and markedly reduced the effort required to supervise those who were not immediately visible; (2) an open environment did not adversely affect the sleep of either infants or toddlers; and (3) an open environment is as conducive to small group pre-academic activities with toddlers as is a separate room. These studies convinced us that infant and toddler day care can and should be accomplished in an open environment.

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