Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the leading global causes of morbidity and mortality. A hallmark of COPD is progressive airflow obstruction primarily caused by cigarette smoke (CS). CS exposure causes an imbalance favoring pro- over antioxidants (oxidative stress), leading to transcription factor activation and increased expression of inflammatory mediators and proteases. Different cell types, including macrophages, epithelial cells, neutrophils, and T lymphocytes, contribute to COPD pathophysiology. Alteration in cell functions results in the generation of an oxidative and inflammatory microenvironment, which contributes to disease progression. Current treatments include inhaled corticosteroids and bronchodilator therapy. However, these therapies do not effectively halt disease progression. Due to the complexity of its pathophysiology, and the risk of exacerbating symptoms with existing therapies, other specific and effective treatment options are required. Therapies directly or indirectly targeting the oxidative imbalance may be promising alternatives. This review briefly discusses COPD pathophysiology, and provides an update on the development and clinical testing of novel COPD treatments.

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The brain-gut axis evidences the interactions between the gastrointestinal system and the brain in a general context. This physiological system is a mutual balance connection between two individual organs of the body in response to internal and external changes. It is extremely important to appreciate the current concepts that involve this system to understand brain-gut interaction, as well as to highlight the insertion of the axis today, using clinical conditions, neuropsychiatric disorders, intestinal microbiota, immunomodulators, and scientific evidence to verify and highlight axis activity in the human body. In this sense, there is a consistent background in literature supporting the physiological development and shaping of the gut in brain disorders by a constant interplay mediated by the several products originating from the microbiota.