Acculturation and enculturation are currently conceptualized as bilinear, multidimensional, and context-dependent cultural socialization processes (Yoon et al., 2013). Yet, this conceptualization requires further specification and empirical evidence. Our work is timely given the downward shift in productivity of traditional acculturation research and the need for a new direction. We examined the constructs and processes of acculturation and enculturation by meta-analytically synthesizing the findings of 255 publications (343 independent samples). In support of a bilinear (vs. unilinear) conceptualization, we found that acculturation and enculturation were only slightly associated with each other, r = −.18. In support of multidimensionality and context-dependency, their relationship varied by dimension (e.g., nonsignificant association of mainstream and ethnic identities vs. significant associations in other dimensions), geographic region, and race. Additionally, acculturation and enculturation rates/patterns varied by dimension; extrinsic changes (e.g., behavior) proceeded faster than intrinsic changes (e.g., values, identity). We discuss a direction for future research and implications for practice, advocacy, and education/training.

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Despite what we have learned about the causes and consequences of bullying, efforts to reduce bullying through interventions to date have yielded modest results. Most bullying prevention efforts have targeted perpetrators and victims, ignoring the powerful role that observers play in maintaining cycles of bullying. This article presents literature from the fields of bystander behavior, empathy training, multicultural education, and ally/social justice orientation development; integrates relevant findings; and proposes a comprehensive model of upstanding behavior to inform prevention efforts. Through helping youth understand the value of being upstanders, there is a greater propensity for our schools and communities to become safer, more compassionate places that value the contributions of all members.

By using the conceptual framework of bilinear acculturation, this study examined Korean immigrant mothers' parenting practices among 389 mother-youth (adolescent children in middle or high school) dyads. We examined (a) how mothers' acculturation and enculturation were related to mainstream (i.e., authoritarian vs. authoritative styles, communication, warmth/bonding, autonomy support) versus culture specific parenting practices (i.e., interdependence, commitment to education, academic control) and (b) how parenting practices were, in turn, linked to youth outcomes of depression, antisocial behaviors, and academic performance as measured 1.5 years later. Mothers and youth had significant perceptual gaps in parenting practices, especially in autonomy support and parental commitment to education. Therefore, path analyses were conducted separately for mother-reported versus youth-reported parenting. As hypothesized, mothers' acculturation was more closely related to mainstream parenting, while enculturation was to culture specific parenting. Mother-reported autonomy support predicted higher academic performance, while youth-reported authoritarian parenting predicted lower academic performance. Youth-reported communication predicted lower depression and antisocial behaviors. The current findings have implications for parenting and family interventions to optimize Korean immigrant youth's well-being in the bicultural context. Additionally, bilinear acculturation was found to be a useful conceptual framework in studying immigrant parenting. Public Significance StatementThis study explored the interrelations of mothers' cultural orientations, parenting practices, and youth outcomes among Korean immigrant families. Autonomy support and communication were particularly important for youth well-being.

Asian American young adults, who grow up in both Asian and mainstream U.S. cultures, often receive conflicting and mixed gender-related messages while navigating various cultural subsystems (e.g., family, ethnic community, school, and work). Such cultural socialization experiences may impact their endorsement of patriarchal beliefs (PB). Therefore, this study examined how gender, acculturation, enculturation, and Asian values predicted Asian American young adults' endorsement of PB, in terms of beliefs in institutional power of men, inherent inferiority of women, and gendered domestic roles. When survey data from 121 Asian American young adults were analyzed by using hierarchical multiple regressions, study variables explained substantial variances in PB (28%-30%). Being male, enculturation, and Asian values were significant positive predictors of PB, whereas acculturation was not. As hypothesized, Asian values explained additional variances in PB above and beyond gender, acculturation, and enculturation. Gender moderated the relation of Asian values and beliefs in inherent inferiority of women, in a way that this association was significantly positive for men but not for women. Gender also moderated the relation of acculturation and beliefs in gendered domestic roles, in a way that this relationship was significantly negative for women but not for men. Instead, the relationship was rather positive for men. Implications for research and practice were discussed. What is the public significance of this article?This study addressed the gaps in literature by exploring how gender, acculturation, enculturation, and Asian values were related to patriarchal beliefs. It provided a preliminary understanding of Asian American young adults' endorsement of patriarchal beliefs in the intersection of gender and culture.