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A series of mango jams were prepared using different hydrocolloid solutions (high methoxyl pectin (HMP), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and sago starch) as gelling agents to investigate the effect of hydrocolloid type, hydrocolloid concentration, and freeze-thaw treatment on the physicochemical, optical, textural, and sensory characteristics. The optical properties results revealed that the total colour change (DE) of the sago starch-based mango jam samples displayed higher values in comparison with samples prepared with HMP and CMC. The textural parameters (hardness, work of shear, stickiness, and work of adhesion) increased with hydrocolloid concentration but decreased with the freeze-thaw treatment except for sago starch-based mango jams. The overall acceptability of mango jams containing 6% sago starch was rated similarly to the samples prepared with 0.7% HMP and 0.5% CMC. Principle component analysis revealed that it could be used as an effective tool to segregate characteristics related to fruit jam manufacture.

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Squalene is used as an ingredient in functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Due to the limitation of squalene availability from predominant source which is shark liver oil and to sustain the environment by fully utilising the by-product of palm oil, an effort has been made to find a potential source of squalene as an alternative to shark liver oil. The motivation for this work is to optimise its extraction from an alternative source, a palm oil by-product known as palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), using supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-CO 2) with the aid of a pressure swing technique. The measurements were performed using a sc-CO 2 extraction in a fixed bed at temperatures of 40°C, 50°C, and 60°C, pressures of 20, 30 and 40 MPa, and holding times of 20, 30 and 40 min; high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used for squalene content analysis, optimised with a central composite design using research surface methodology (RSM). The second-order polynomial mathematical model adequately fitted the experimental results. The maximum squalene content from the model was predicted to be 356.24 ppm under the set of conditions with pressure of 23 MPa, temperature at 40°C, and 20 min holding time.