This study was designed to examine whether participants who could control the schedule of performance feedback (KP) would learn differentially from those who received a rigid feedback schedule while learning a complex task. Participants (N = 48) were randomly assigned to self-controlled KP (SELF), summary KP (SUMMARY), yoked control (YOKE), or knowledge of results only (KR) conditions. Data collection consisted of an acquisition phase and a 4-day retention phase during which right-handed participants performed a left-handed ball throw. Overall, throwing form improved across trial blocks during acquisition, with the SUMMARY, SELF, and YOKE groups showing more improvement than the KR group. During retention, the SELF group retained a higher level of throwing form and accuracy in comparison to the other groups. Results suggest that when given the opportunity to control the feedback environment, learners require relatively less feedback to acquire skills and retain those skills at a level equivalent to or surpassing those who are given more feedback but receive it passively.

. Skilled (n = 12) and less skilled (n = 12) billiards players participated in 2 experiments in which the relationship between quiet eye duration, expertise, and task complexity was examined in a near and a far aiming task. Quiet eye was defined as the final fixation on the target prior to the initiation of movement. In Experiment 1, skilled performers exhibited longer fixations on the target (quiet eye) during the preparation phase of the action than their less skilled counterparts did. Quiet eye duration increased as a function of shot difficulty and was proportionally longer on successful than on unsuccessful shots for both groups of participants. In Experiment 2, participants executed shots under 3 different time-constrained conditions in which quiet eye periods were experimentally manipulated. Shorter quiet eye periods resulted in poorer performance, irrespective of participant skill level. The authors argue that quiet eye duration represents a critical period for movement programming in the aiming response.

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This study was designed to examine the perceptual and attentional processes associated with the effects of administering a cost-benefit precuing paradigm to intermediate and advance-level baseball batters. Psychophysiological and performance data obtained from 10 advanced and 10 intermediate-level players were compared. A total of 400 pitches (200 fastballs, 200 curveballs) was randomly presented via a large projection screen, and participants pressed one of two buttons to indicate the type of pitch thrown. Verbal precues were given for 300 of the pitches. Of those, 75% were valid, and 25% were invalid. Electroencephalographic data collected from the P location was used to assess the latency and amplitude of P300. Analysis of variance (Skill Level x Precue x Pitch) for P300 and reaction time (RT) indicated that intermediate batters produced shorter P300 latencies, larger P300 amplitudes, longer RTs, and less correct responses than the advanced batters; the effects were more pronounced for the curveballs. These results suggest that intermediate batters are less efficient in their perceptual decision-making processes due to greater limitations in attentional capacity when compared with advanced batters.