Plant cells face many changes through their life cycle and develop several mechanisms to cope with adversity. Stress caused by environmental factors is turning out to be more and more relevant as the human population grows and plant cultures start to fail. As eukaryotes, plant cells must coordinate several processes occurring between compartments and combine different pathways for protein transport to several cellular locations. Conventionally, these pathways begin at the ER, or endoplasmic reticulum, move through the Golgi and deliver cargo to the vacuole or to the plasma membrane. However, when under stress, protein trafficking in plants is compromised, usually leading to changes in the endomembrane system that may include protein transport through unconventional routes and alteration of morphology, activity and content of key organelles, as the ER and the vacuole. Such events provide the tools for cells to adapt and overcome the challenges brought on by stress. With this review, we gathered fragmented information on the subject, highlighting how such changes are processed within the endomembrane system and how it responds to an ever-changing environment. Even though the available data on this subject are still sparse, novel information is starting to untangle the complexity and dynamics of protein transport routes and their role in maintaining cell homeostasis under harsh conditions.

The use of opioids to control pain at the end of life may cause constipation, a symptom that can negatively influence the wellbeing of patients and caregivers. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of constipation on symptomatic control and patients' overall quality of life at this stage. A particular focus was placed on opioids. We also intended to investigate whether constipation and caregiver fatigue is related to the place of death (hospital vs home). The approach of 121 patients followed in 2021 in their last week of life by a home team specialized in palliative care was analyzed in an observational, retrospective, noninterventional study. The patients were followed up for an average of 39.7 days. A total of 82.6% wished to die at home, which occurred in 74% of the cases. The constipation prevention protocol reduced constipation by 55.1%. It seems that morphine is more related with constipation and tapentadol seems to reduce constipation induced by opioids. Patients tended to die in hospitals when their caregivers were exhausted; however, it was not possible to determine a cutoff point using the Zarit scale, which was used to assess caregiver burden. Constipation in the last week of life does not seem to influence the well-being of patients or their caregivers significantly and the individualization of intensive treatment of constipation is needed. Different opioids have different probabilities of causing adverse effects such as constipation. Future special support mechanisms can be created and activated for the most tired caregivers to avoid exhaustion and promote death at home, if that is the patient's will.

Stress compromises protein trafficking in plants, which often results in modifications to the endomembrane system and trafficking pathways. Proteins travel in unexpected ways during stress, and cell compartments alter their appearance, activity, and content to cope with the difficulties that stress brings. We will piece together material on the issue in this chapter, emphasizing how the endomembrane system processes such changes and how it reacts to a dynamic environment. The intricate dynamics of protein transport pathways and how they maintain cellular homeostasis under challenging circumstances is illustrated.

This article intends to discuss the reach of international responsibility of states when acting under the mandate of an international organization. More specifically, it argues on the role of Nigeria when taking action under ECOWAS, a sub-regional organization, within the internal disturbances that occurred in Liberia and Serra Leone in the 1990s, in which triggered a humanitarian crisis that demanded intervention. Therefore, it will describe the intentions and actions carried out by Nigeria under an ECOWAS' mandate in order to try distinguishing Member State's responsibilities from the organizationitself, as it could reflect on the liability of such party for any international law violations carried out under peacekeeping operations. After all, if any abuse is currently foreseen, the (regional) international organization is the one held responsible, even if there was a clear abuse of its legal personality by the State. Thus, at the end, this article tries to reveal a need for a change in the understanding of international organization responsibility whenever a party is acting solely by its interests-as in the case of Nigeria-in order for it to be held liable.

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