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Variable renewable energy (VRE) generation from wind and sun is growing quickly in Europe. Already today, VRE's power contribution is at times close to the total demand in some regions with severe consequences for the remainder of the power system. Grid extensions are necessary for the physical integration of VRE, i.e., for power transports, but they also have important economic consequences for all power system participants.We employ a regional, power system model to examine the role of grid extensions for the market effects of VRE in Europe. We derive cost-optimal macroscopic transmission grid extensions for the projected wind and solar capacities in Europe in 2020 and characterize their effects on the power system with high regional and technological resolution.Without grid extensions, lower electricity prices, new price dynamics and reduced full load hours for conventional generation technologies result in * k.schaber@tum.de Preprint submitted to Energy PolicyDecember 22, 2011 proximity to high VRE capacities. This leads to substantial changes in the projected achievable revenues of utilities. Grid extensions partially alleviate and redistribute these effects, mainly for the benefit of baseload and the VRE technologies themselves.

ABSTRACT.Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the tolerability and intraocular pressure (IOP) reducing effect of the first preservative-free prostaglandin tafluprost (Taflotan Ò ) in patients exhibiting ocular surface side-effects during latanoprost (Xalatan Ò ) treatment.Methods: A total of 158 patients were enrolled in this open-label multicentre study. Eligible patients had to have at least two ocular symptoms, or one sign and one symptom, during treatment with latanoprost. At baseline, the patients were directly switched from latanoprost to preservative-free tafluprost for 12 weeks. The patients were queried for ocular symptoms, and ocular signs were assessed by using tear break-up time, Schirmer's test, fluorescein staining and evaluation of conjunctival hyperaemia and blepharitis. In addition, HLA-DR and MUC5AC in conjunctival impression cytology specimens were analyzed, and a drop discomfort ⁄ quality of life (QoL) questionnaire was employed. IOP was measured at all visits.Results: Preservative-free tafluprost maintained IOP at the same level after 12-weeks treatment (16.4 ± 2.7 mmHg) as latanoprost at baseline (16.8 ± 2.5 mmHg). During treatment with preservative-free tafluprost, the number of patients having irritation ⁄ burning ⁄ stinging (56.3%), itching (46.8%), foreign body sensation (49.4%), tearing (55.1%) and dry eye sensation (64.6%) decreased to 28.4%, 26.5%, 27.1%, 27.1% and 39.4% correspondingly. The number of the patients with abnormal fluorescein staining of cornea (81.6%) and conjunctiva (84.2%), blepharitis (60.1%), conjunctival hyperaemia (84.2%) and abnormal Schirmer's test (71.5%) was also reduced significantly to 40.6%, 43.2%, 40.6%, 60.0% and 59.4% correspondingly. The tear break-up time improved significantly from 4.5 ± 2.5 seconds to 7.8 ± 4.9 seconds. A reduction in the number of patients with abnormal conjunctival cells based on HLA-DR and MUC5AC was also detected.Conclusions: Preservative-free tafluprost maintained IOP at the same level as latanoprost, but was better tolerated in patients having signs or symptoms while on preserved latanoprost. Preservative-free tafluprost treatment resulted in improved QoL, increased patient satisfaction and drop comfort.

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