Aim-Carbamylation of proteins through reactive cyanate has been demonstrated to predict an increased cardiovascular risk. Cyanate is formed in vivo by break-down of urea and at sites of inflammation by the phagocyte protein myeloperoxidase. Since myeloperoxidase (MPO) associates with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in human atherosclerotic intima, we examined in the present study whether cyanate specifically targets HDL.Results-Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that protein carbamylation is a major posttranslational modification of HDL. The carbamyllysine content of lesion derived HDL was more Europe PMC Funders Author ManuscriptsEurope PMC Funders Author Manuscripts than 20-fold higher in comparison to 3-chlorotyrosine levels, a specific oxidation product of MPO. Notable, the carbamyllysine content of lesion-derived HDL was 5 to 8-fold higher when compared to lesion derived low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or total lesion protein and increased with lesion severity. Importantly, the carbamyllysine content of HDL, but not of LDL, correlated with levels of 3-chlorotyrosine, suggesting MPO mediated carbamylation in the vessel wall. Remarkably, one carbamyllysine residue per HDL associated apolipoprotein A-I was sufficient to induce cholesterol accumulation and lipid droplet formation in macrophages through a pathway requiring the HDL receptor scavenger receptor class B, type I. Conclusion-The present results raise the possibility that HDL carbamylation contributes to foam cell formation in atherosclerotic lesions.

Liver X receptors (LXRs) are important regulators of cholesterol and lipid metabolism. LXR agonists have been shown to limit the cellular cholesterol content by inducing reverse cholesterol transport, increasing bile acid production, and inhibiting intestinal cholesterol absorption. Most of them, however, also increase lipogenesis via sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP1c) and carbohydrate response element-binding protein activation resulting in hypertriglyceridemia and liver steatosis. We report on the antiatherogenic properties of the steroidal liver X receptor agonist N,N-dimethyl-3b-hydroxy-cholenamide (DMHCA) in apolipoprotein E (apoE)-deficient mice. Long-term administration of DMHCA (11 weeks) significantly reduced lesion formation in male and female apoE-null mice. Notably, DMHCA neither increased hepatic triglyceride (TG) levels in male nor female apoE-deficient mice. ATP binding cassette transporter A1 and G1 and cholesterol 7a-hydroxylase mRNA abundances were increased, whereas SREBP1c mRNA expression was unchanged in liver, and even decreased in macrophages and intestine. Short-term treatment revealed even higher changes on mRNA regulation. Our data provide evidence that DMHCA is a strong candidate as therapeutic agent for the treatment or prevention of atherosclerosis, circumventing the negative side effects of other LXR agonists. Nuclear liver X receptors (LXRs) are involved in the control of cholesterol and lipid metabolism. LXRa (NR1H3) and LXRb (NR1H2) are sterol sensors that bind oxysterols to act as a transcriptional switch for the coordinated regulation of genes involved in cellular cholesterol homeostasis, cholesterol transport, catabolism, and absorption (1). In peripheral cells such as macrophages, LXRs are likely to coordinate a physiological response to cholesterol loading by regulating the transcription of several genes involved in cholesterol efflux and catabolism, including ATP-binding cassette (ABC)A1 and G1 (2-6).

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Cholesteryl ester (CE) accumulation in macrophages represents a crucial event during foam cell formation, a hallmark of atherogenesis. Here we investigated the role of two previously described CE hydrolases, hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) and KIAA1363, in macrophage CE hydrolysis. HSL and KIAA1363 exhibited marked differences in their abilities to hydrolyze CE, triacylglycerol (TG), diacylglycerol (DG), and 2-acetyl monoalkylglycerol ether (AcMAGE), a precursor for biosynthesis of platelet-activating factor (PAF). HSL efficiently cleaved all four substrates, whereas KIAA1363 hydrolyzed only AcMAGE. This contradicts previous studies suggesting that KIAA1363 is a neutral CE hydrolase. Macrophages of KIAA1363−/− and wild-type mice exhibited identical neutral CE hydrolase activity, which was almost abolished in tissues and macrophages of HSL−/− mice. Conversely, AcMAGE hydrolase activity was diminished in macrophages and some tissues of KIAA1363−/− but unchanged in HSL−/− mice. CE turnover was unaffected in macrophages lacking KIAA1363 and HSL, whereas cAMP-dependent cholesterol efflux was influenced by HSL but not by KIAA1363. Despite decreased CE hydrolase activities, HSL−/− macrophages exhibited CE accumulation similar to wild-type (WT) macrophages. We conclude that additional enzymes must exist that cooperate with HSL to regulate CE levels in macrophages. KIAA1363 affects AcMAGE hydrolase activity but is of minor importance as a direct CE hydrolase in macrophages.

1 The cardiotonic agent BDF 9148 (4-[3'-(1"-benzhydryl-azetidine-3"-oxy)-2'-hydroxypropoxy]-lHindole-2-carbonitrile) is structurally related to -(4"-benzhydryl-1"-piperazinyl)-2'-hydroxypropoxy]-1H-indole-2-carbonitrile) which is known to modify cardiac sodium channels. In guinea-pig papillary muscles, both compounds increase force of contraction with similar concentrationresponse curves. Like DPI 201-106, BDF 9148 prolongs the action potential duration in a tetrodotoxinsensitive manner. With high concentrations (>3 gM), however, the action potential duration shortens again. In order to elucidate the underlying changes in membrane currents, we have investigated the effects of BDF 9148 in isolated ventricular myocytes of the guinea-pig heart. 2 In isolated cells, a concentration of 1 M BDF 9148 prolonged the action potential duration and markedly enhanced unloaded cell shortening, indicating that the procedure of cell isolation does not abolish the effect of the drug. 3 Membrane currents were studied with the single electrode voltage clamp technique. With clamp steps from -80 mV to -40 mV, BDF 9148 (1 UM) induced a slowly decaying inward current which was suppressed by tetrodotoxin. Therefore, like DPI 201-106, BDF 9148 slows the inactivation of the sodium channels. 4 In order to quantify the effects of BDF 9148 and DPI 201-106 on sodium current inactivation, we have measured the inward current amplitude still present at 100ms after a depolarizing clamp step from -80 mV to -30 mV. Both drugs increased this current component in a concentration-dependent manner; however, BDF 9148 had a larger effect in the low concentration range. 5 The calcium current was inhibited by BDF 9148 and DPI 201-106 in a concentration-dependent manner; the pD2 values were 5.70 and 5.95, respectively. 6 The two compounds are thought to produce similar positive inotropic effects by imposing a sodium load on the muscle cells via modification of the sodium channels. The differences in action potential duration could be due to different contributions of ionic currents other than sodium or calcium currents and of pump and exchange currents. At present, there is not sufficient data to identify clearly distinct current components responsible for the differences in action potential prolongation.