On 28 September 2018, a strong earthquake with a moment magnitude of 7.5 occurred on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. This earthquake caused extensive liquefaction and liquefaction-induced flow slides inland. Despite a strike-slip fault, which typically displaces land horizontally, being unlikely to produce significant tsunamis, the earthquake in fact caused devastating tsunamis. Our field investigations showed that there was an occurrence of extensive liquefaction in coastal areas. Significant coastal liquefaction can result in a gravity flow of liquefied soil mass that can cause a tsunami. A comparison with a past disaster of the strike-slip fault Haiti earthquake tsunami indicated that essentially the same occurred at the Palu coast of Central Sulawesi. Namely, liquefaction-induced total collapse of coastal land caused liquefied sediment flows, resulting in a tsunami. An important difference between this time and Haiti was that such total collapses and flows of coastal land due to liquefaction occurred at several (at least nine) places, resulting in multiple tsunamis. Analysis of the tidal data implied that less than 20% of the tsunami height was related to tectonic processes, and the majority was caused by the coastal and submarine landslides as characterized by liquefied gravity flows.
The development of bedforms under unidirectional, oscillatory and combined-flows results from temporal changes in sediment transport, flow and morphological response. In such flows, the bedform characteristics (for example, height, wavelength and shape) change over time, from their initiation to equilibrium with the imposed conditions, even if the flow conditions remain unchanged. These variations in bedform morphology during development are reflected in the sedimentary structures preserved in the rock record. Hence, understanding the time and morphological development in which bedforms evolve to an equilibrium stage is critical for informed reconstruction of the ancient sedimentary record. This article presents results from a laboratory flume study on bedform development and equilibrium development time conducted under purely unidirectional, purely oscillatory and combined-flow conditions, which aimed to test and extend an empirical model developed in past work solely for unidirectional ripples. The present results yield a unified model for bedform development and equilibrium under unidirectional, oscillatory and combined-flows. The experimental results show that the processes of bedform genesis and growth are common to all types of flows, and can be characterized into four stages: (i) incipient bedforms; (ii) growing bedforms; (iii) stabilizing bedforms; and (iv) fully developed bedforms. Furthermore, the development path of bedform; growth exhibits the same general trend for different flow types (for example, unidirectional, oscillatory and combined-flows), bedform size (for example, small versus large ripples), bedform shape (for example, symmetrical or rounded), bedform planform geometry (for example, two-dimensional versus three-dimensional), flow velocities and sediment grain sizes. The equilibrium time for a wide range of bed configurations was determined and found to be inversely proportional to the sediment transport flux occurring for that flow condition.
Propagation and inundation characteristics of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami on the central Sanriku coast are investigated through field surveys and numerical simulations using offshore wave recordings as incident wave conditions. The numerical model successfully reproduces the extent of flood areas as well as the distribution of tsunami heights along the intricate coastline except for run-up of extreme heights over steep slopes. The survey and computed results suggest significant variations of tsunami heights along the coastline. Their positive dependency on topographic slopes implies that the incoming tsunami propagates in standing wave mode to precipitous sites while in progressive wave mode accompanied 1250004-1 Coast. Eng. J. 2012.54. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com by UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA @ SAN DIEGO on 06/04/15. For personal use only. T. Shimozono et al.by wave breaking over gentle slopes. Temporal-spatial analysis of wave properties in different bays reveals that the inner bay topography provides a clear contrast to inundation characteristics. The impacting waves have extreme heights due to the funnel effect and local wave resonances causing highly transient flooding in narrow V-shaped bays whereas tsunami surges over longer periods across innermost shores of U-shaped bays to produce large horizontal velocities during both run-up and backwash phases.
The April 2016 Ecuador Mw 7.8 earthquake was the first megathrust tsunamigenic earthquake along the Ecuador‐Colombia subduction zone since 1979 (Mw 8.2 with 200 deaths from tsunami). While there was no tsunami damage from the 2016 earthquake, small tsunamis were recorded at Deep‐ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami and tide gauges. Here we designed various fault models with and without shallow‐slip area and compared the computed teleseismic and tsunami waveforms with the observations. While teleseismic inversions were indifferent about inclusion or exclusion of the shallow slip, tsunami waveforms strongly favored the slip model without shallow slip. Our final slip model has a depth range of 15–44 km, and its western shallowest limit is located at the distance of ~60 km from the trench. Maximum and average slips were 2.5 and 0.7 m, respectively. The large‐slip area was 80 km (along strike) × 60 km (along dip) in the depth range of 15–35 km.
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