The elasmobranchs (sharks, rays and skates) being the extant survivors of one of the earliest offshoots of the vertebrate evolutionary tree are good model organisms to study the primitive vertebrate conditions. They play a significant role in maintaining the ecological balance and have high economic value. Due to over-exploitation and illegal fishing worldwide, the elasmobranch stocks are being decimated at an alarming rate. Appropriate management measures are necessary for restoring depleted elasmobranch stocks. One approach for restoring stocks is implementation of conservation measures and these measures can be formulated effectively by knowing the evolutionary relationship among the elasmobranchs. In this study, a total of 30 species were chosen for molecular phylogeny studies using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, 12S ribosomal RNA gene and nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer 2. Among different genes, the combined dataset of COI and 12S rRNA resulted in a well resolved tree topology with significant bootstrap/posterior probabilities values. The results supported the reciprocal monophyly of sharks and batoids. Within Galeomorphii, Heterodontiformes (bullhead sharks) formed as a sister group to Lamniformes (mackerel sharks): Orectolobiformes (carpet sharks) and to Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks). Within batoids, the Myliobatiformes formed a monophyly group while Pristiformes (sawfishes) and Rhinobatiformes (guitar fishes) formed a sister group to all other batoids.

The immunostimulatory and disease resistance properties of herb Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae) were evaluated in rohu Labeo rohita in pond. Rohu fry (1.9 ± 0.08 g) were cultured in hapas (25 hapa −1 ) set inside a pond and were fed with two experimental diets containing 0.5% seeds (D1) and leaves (D2) of A. aspera and control diet (D3). Fish were challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila after 80 days. The cumulative mortality rate of fish was significantly ( P < 0.05) higher in D3 (28–48%) compared to others. Average weight was significantly ( P < 0.05) higher in D1 (6.5–12.5%) compared to other treatments. Myeloperoxidase and nitric oxide synthase levels were significantly ( P < 0.05) higher in D1 and D2 compared to D3. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and carbonyl protein levels were significantly ( P < 0.05) lower in hepatopancreas and kidney of D1 compared to others. In hepatopancreas, the expressions of lysozyme C, loysozyme G, TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-1β were significantly ( P < 0.05) higher in D1 compared to others. This treatment was followed by D2. In kidney, lysozyme G and TNF-α levels were significantly ( P < 0.05) higher in D1 and D2 compared to D3. Whereas, IL-10 and IL-1β were significantly ( P < 0.05) down-regulated and up-regulated, respectively in kidney of D2. There was up-regulation ( P < 0.05) of TLR-4 in hepatopancreas and kidney of D1 and D2 diets fed rohu, respectively compared to others.

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