: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant astrocytic glioma, accounting for about 90% of all brain tumors with poor prognosis. Despite recent advances in understanding molecular mechanisms of oncogenesis and the improved neuroimaging technologies, surgery, and adjuvant treatments, the clinical prognosis of patients with GBM remains persistently unfavorable. The signaling pathways and the regulation of growth factors of glioblastoma cells are very abnormal. The various signaling pathways have been suggested to be involved in cellular proliferation, invasion, and glioma metastasis. The Wnt signaling pathway with its pleiotropic functions in neurogenesis and stem cell proliferation is implicated in various human cancers, including glioma. In addition, the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway is closely related to growth, metabolism, survival, angiogenesis, autophagy, and chemotherapy resistance of GBM. Understanding the mechanisms of GBM’s invasion, represented by invasion and migration, is an important tool in designing effective therapeutic interventions. This review will investigate two main signaling pathways in GBM: PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathways.

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The objective of the study was to investigate the position, position symmetry, shape and number of the mental foramen in a heterogeneous South African population. Knowledge of the precise position of MF in maxillofacial surgery is critical for an accurate local anaesthesia; and can provide a landmark in forensic or medico legal cases. Dry adult human mandibles (n = 325) were selected and classified by ancestry. The sample comprised male-to-female ratio of 1.2:1. Observations were made for the position, position symmetry, shape and number of the mental foramen. There was a substantial to perfect agreement (p < 0.001) for most observations, except for the shape of the MF on the right side of the mandible that had a fair agreement (K = 0.25; P > 0.05). PIV of the MF is shown as the most prevalent position. PIII and IV were commonly observed in males and females respectively. PII was commonly observed in the males of European descent, while PIII was observed in male African and Mixed descents and female European descents. There was no significant difference in the symmetric analysis of MF amongst male and female (p = 0.059) and between ancestry (p = 0.455). But also, an oval shape of MF was the most common across subpopulations and ancestries, with 2 (2 %) and 3 (0.46 %) of the AMFs present. This study is the first comprehensive description of the MF in the South African population, and could be very useful in forensic anthropology in the South Africa population.

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