Recent studies have shown that the tumor microenvironment plays an important role in cancer progression. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), in particular, have been found to be associated with tumor progression. Macrophages have multiple biological roles, including antigen presentation, target cell cytotoxicity, removal of foreign bodies, tissue remodeling, regulation of inflammation, induction of immunity, thrombosis, and endocytosis. Recent immunological studies have identified two distinct states of polarized macrophage activation: the classically activated (M1) and the alternatively activated (M2) macrophage phenotypes. Bacterial moieties such as lipopolysaccharides and the Th1 cytokine interferon-γ polarize macrophages toward the M1 phenotype. The M2 polarization was discovered as a response to the Th2 cytokine interleukin-4. In general, M2 macrophages exert immunoregulatory activity, participate in polarized Th2 responses, and aid tumor progression. TAMs have recently been found to play an important role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression. Based on the properties of TAMs, obtained from pathological examination of resected specimens, we have identified new therapeutic approaches, involving the targeting of TAMs with adjuvant therapy after hepatic resection for HCC. This review discusses the roles of TAM in HCC progression and the possibility of new therapies targeting TAMs.

Both cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking are well-established risk factors for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), and the relationship of dose to cancer risk has already been described. Furthermore, the synergistic effect of these two factors has been reported. Our case-control study revealed the odds ratio of ESCC to be 50.1 for those who were both heavy smokers and heavy drinkers in comparison to people who neither drank nor smoked. In patients with ESCC, head and neck cancers as well as dysplastic lesions are frequently observed. Heavy smoking and heavy drinking are closely related to such multicentric carcinogenesis events in the upper aerodigestive tract (UADT), including the esophagus and head andneck region. Polymorphisms in acetaldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) are reported to be a key event in deciding individual susceptibility to UADT cancer. Patients with inactive ALDH2, in whom facial flushing is usually observed after the drinking of alcohol, are at high risk for ESCC as well as multiple UADT cancers. For the early detection of the disease, effective follow up using endoscopy with Lugol staining or narrow band imaging endoscopy is strongly recommended for high-risk populations, such as smokers, heavy drinkers, people with experience of flushing after the drinking of alcohol, and patients with UADT cancer.

This study demonstrated that TLDG has several advantages over LADG including smaller wounds, less invasiveness, and better feasibility of a secure ablation. The TLDG procedure yields safe anastomosis independently of the patient's constitution or the location of the cancer. Therefore, TLDG is considered to be a useful technique for patients with gastric cancer.

Goshajinkigan did not prevent oxaliplatin-associated peripheral neuropathy in this clinical trial. The clinical study was therefore terminated.

Between 1965 and 1985, 51 of 1500 patients (3.4%) with gastric cancer who had gastric resection had signet ring cell gastric cancer. Patients with this form of cancer tended to be younger and female; the tumors were smaller and involved the stomach body, serosal invasion was less prominent, and lymph node metastases were less likely to be present. Early mucosal and submucosal cancer was present in 54.9% of the patients with the signet ring cell and in 24.6% with other types of gastric cancer. In 15.7% of patients with signet ring cell cancer, a noncurative resection was performed. The 5‐year survival rate was 74.5% for patients with signet ring cell cancer and 52.4% for those with other types of gastric cancer (P < 0.01). In patients with signet ring cell gastric cancer, the lesion is less extensive; thus, these patients probably can expect a longer survival time.