Actinidia chinensis is an important economic plant belonging to the basal lineage of the asterids. Availability of a complete Actinidia chloroplast genome sequence is crucial to understanding phylogenetic relationships among major lineages of angiosperms and facilitates kiwifruit genetic improvement. We report here the complete nucleotide sequences of the chloroplast genomes for Actinidia chinensis and A. chinensis var deliciosa obtained through de novo assembly of Illumina paired-end reads produced by total DNA sequencing. The total genome size ranges from 155,446 to 157,557 bp, with an inverted repeat (IR) of 24,013 to 24,391 bp, a large single copy region (LSC) of 87,984 to 88,337 bp and a small single copy region (SSC) of 20,332 to 20,336 bp. The genome encodes 113 different genes, including 79 unique protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes and 4 ribosomal RNA genes, with 16 duplicated in the inverted repeats, and a tRNA gene (trnfM-CAU) duplicated once in the LSC region. Comparisons of IR boundaries among four asterid species showed that IR/LSC borders were extended into the 5’ portion of the psbA gene and IR contraction occurred in Actinidia. The clap gene has been lost from the chloroplast genome in Actinidia, and may have been transferred to the nucleus during chloroplast evolution. Twenty-seven polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci were identified in the Actinidia chloroplast genome. Maximum parsimony analyses of a 72-gene, 16 taxa angiosperm dataset strongly support the placement of Actinidiaceae in Ericales within the basal asterids.

An ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) procedure of epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C and icariin from Herba Epimedii was developed. The effects of ethanol concentration, ratio of liquid to solid, UAE time, extraction temperature and number of extraction cycles on the extraction yields of the four flavonoids from Herba Epimedii were investigated. The optimal UAE condition was found using orthogonal test: 50% (v/v) ethanol solution, liquid:solid ratio of 30 ml/g, ultrasonication duration 30 min, extraction temperature 50 degrees C and three extraction cycles. The UAE method showed a high reproducibility. Epimedin A, B, C and icariin in the crude extract exhibited photodegradation under ultraviolet irradiation. This UAE method was shown to be highly efficient compared with the conventional Soxhlet extraction and boiling extraction. The effect of ultrasound on cell destruction was examined by scanning electron microscopy. The contents of epimedin A, B, C and icariin in the leaves of 20 Epimedium species were determined using high-performance liquid chromatographic method following UAE method.

In plants, the role of anthocyanins trafficking in response to high temperature has been rarely studied, and therefore poorly understood. Red-fleshed kiwifruit has stimulated the world kiwifruit industry owing to its appealing color. However, fruit in warmer climates have been found to have poor flesh coloration, and the factors responsible for this response remain elusive. Partial correlation and regression analysis confirmed that accumulative temperatures above 25 °C (T25) was one of the dominant factors inhibiting anthocyanin accumulation in red-fleshed Actinidia chinensis, 'Hongyang'. Expression of structural genes, AcMRP and AcMYB1 in inner pericarp sampled from the two high altitudes (low temperature area), was notably higher than the low altitude (high temperature area) during fruit coloration. AcMYB1 and structural genes coordinate expression supported the MYB-bHLH (basic helix-loop-helix)-WD40 regulatory complex mediated downregulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis induced by high temperatures in kiwifruit. Moreover, cytological observations using the light and transmission electronic microscopy showed that there were a series of anthocyanic vacuolar inclusion (AVI)-like structures involved in their vacuolization process and dissolution of the pigmented bodies inside cells of fruit inner pericarp. Anthocyanin transport was inhibited by high temperature via retardation of vacuolization or reduction in AIV-like structure formation. Our findings strongly suggested that complex multimechanisms influenced the effects of high temperature on red-fleshed kiwifruit coloration.

Climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene have had pronounced effects on the extant distribution of Tapiscia relative to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Spatial patterns of molecular variation and ENM suggest that T. sinensis may have retreated in south-western and central China and colonized eastern China prior to the LGM. Multiple montane refugia for T. sinense existing during the LGM are inferred in central and western China. The populations adjacent to or within these refugia of T. sinense should be given high priority in the development of conservation policies and management strategies for this endangered species.

Forty-eight kiwifruit cultivars and selections, representing more than 90% of total world kiwifruit production, were investigated using nine SSR markers to establish genetic identities, and evaluate genetic diversity and relatedness. These nine SSRs were polymorphic and a total of 213 alleles were detected, resulting in a mean number of 23.7 alleles per locus, ranging from nine to 38 alleles. One hundred and thirty-three alleles were found to be common to both A. chinensis and A. deliciosa, while 33 and 36 were specific to A. chinensis and A. deliciosa, respectively. In addition, 34 alleles were specific to one single genotype and provided a set of valuable alleles for cultivar identification. A single SSR locus UDK 96-414 could differentiate all 48 genotypes except two presumable clones. Mean number of alleles per locus (A), percentage of polymorphic loci (P), and direct count heterozygosity (Ho) assessed for each genotype over all loci revealed considerable differences among these 48 genotypes. On average, A = 2.6, P = 89.4% and Ho = 0.546 were found in A. chinensis cultivars, while A = 3.5, P = 97.0% and Ho = 0.671 in A. deliciosa cultivars. Consensus fingerprint profiling using SSR markers is a useful and reliable method for establishing genetic identities of kiwifruit cultivars and selections. It also improves evaluation effectiveness of genetic diversity and relatedness compared to RAPD markers.