A nine-country study of the protein content and amino acid composition of mature human milk

Feng, Ping; Gao, Ming; Burgher, Anita M.; Zhou, Tian Hui; Pramuk, Kathryn

doi:10.3402/fnr.v60.31042

Cited by 40 publications

(27 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…40 Moreover, the total protein concentration of mature human milk decreases to from~13 g/L at 1 to 2 months to~11 g/L at 5 to 6 months postpartum. 41 In contrast, FF infants are consistently exposed to a protein concentration of 13 to 14 g/L and hence higher protein intake. 42 Protein intake in excess of requirements may drive higher weight gain in the FF infant, as higher concentrations of fasting 43 and postprandial [44][45][46] branched chain amino acids may stimulate increased insulin concentrations and, in turn, increase cellular glucose uptake.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impact of early rapid weight gain on odds for overweight at one year differs between breastfed and formula‐fed infants

et al. 2020

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Summary Background Early rapid weight gain (RWG) increases, whereas longer durations of breastfeeding decreases, odds for later obesity. Objectives To determine the independent and interactive effects of early weight gain and diet on infant weight status trajectories and odds for overweight at 1 year. Methods We conducted secondary analysis on data from two longitudinal trials with repeated anthropometric measures. One trial consisted of predominantly or exclusively breastfed (BF, n = 97) infants, whereas the other consisted of exclusively formula‐fed (FF, n = 113) infants. Weight‐for‐length z‐score (WLZ) change from 0.5 to 4.5 months was used to categorize early weight gain as slow (<−0.67; SWG), normal (−0.67 to 0.67; NWG) or rapid (>0.67; RWG). Linear‐mixed effects models were fit to examine the independent effects and interaction of early diet (BF, FF) and weight gain (SWG, NWG, RWG) groups on WLZ trajectories; logistic regression was used to assess odds for overweight at 1 year. Results While similar percentages (41%) of BF and FF infants experienced RWG, we found a significant diet × early weight gain group interaction (P < .001) on weight status. At 1 year, the WLZ of FF infants with RWG (1.57 ± 0.99) was twice that of BF infants with RWG (0.83 ± 0.92). Using BF infants with NWG as the reference group, FF infants with RWG had increased odds [OR: 25.3 (95% CI: 3.21, 199.7)] for overweight at 1 year, whereas BF infants with RWG did not. Conclusions Early diet interacts with early weight gain and influences weight status trajectories and overweight risk at 1 year.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impact of early rapid weight gain on odds for overweight at one year differs between breastfed and formula‐fed infants

et al. 2020

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“…Maternal diet might influence HM composition. However, the contribution of maternal diet to protein, FAA and TAA levels in HM is expected to be low, as those levels appear to be well preserved among mothers across different geographical locations consuming different diets [ 7 , 45 , 46 ]. This is reinforced by a study in China that reported the absence of a link between the AA concentration in maternal diet and HM [ 47 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Longitudinal Variation of Amino Acid Levels in Human Milk and Their Associations with Infant Gender

et al. 2018

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It is discussed that specific amino acids (AAs) have functional roles in early life. Understanding the AA composition in human milk (HM) during lactation assists in specifying these roles. To this end we assessed the levels of free AAs (FAAs), total AAs (free and bound, TAAs) and protein levels in HM in the first 6 months of lactation, and evaluated possible associations with infant gender. HM samples of 25 healthy Dutch mothers participating in the PreventCD study were collected monthly during the first 6 months of lactation. Of the participating mothers, 12 gave birth to a boy and 13 gave birth to a girl. Analyses of the HM samples revealed that levels of free glutamate, glutamine, aspartate, glycine, and serine significantly increased during months 1–3 of lactation, both in absolute sense and relative to TAA levels. Evaluation of gender differences by mixed model analyses revealed an association between female infant gender and higher protein content (p = 0.0465) and TAA content (p = 0.0362) in HM during the first 3 months of lactation. Furthermore, there was a tendency for an association of male infant gender with higher levels of free glutamine (p = 0.0948) in HM during the first 3 months of lactation. These results show that FAA, TAA and protein levels in HM display a time-specific occurrence during lactation. Moreover, although confirmation is necessary in view of the small sample size, this study indicates that the AA composition in HM shows differential effects of the infant’s sex.

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“…The more rapid weight gain in formula-fed infants might be mediated through an amino acids-induced secretion of insulin and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) [ 32 , 33 ]. Although the protein intake was not determined in the present study due to lack of data on the volume of breast milk, infants fed with higher volumes formula milk were speculated to consume more protein than breast-fed infants because the protein content was higher in formula milk (1.3~1.7 g/100 ml) than in breast milk (1.0 g~1.3 g/100 ml) [ 13 , 34 ]. Several other biological mechanisms have been proposed to explain the association between formula feeding and risk of obesity.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Early feeding of larger volumes of formula milk is associated with greater body weight or overweight in later infancy

Huang

Zhang

et al. 2018

Nutr J

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BackgroundThe relation between infant feeding and growth has been extensively evaluated, but studies examining the volume of formula milk consumption on infant growth are limited. This study aimed to examine the effects of early feeding of larger volumes of formula on growth and risk of overweight in later infancy.MethodsIn total, 1093 infants were studied prospectively. Milk records collected at 3 mo of age were used to define the following 3 feeding groups: breast milk feeding (BM, no formula), lower-volume formula milk feeding (LFM, <840 ml formula/d), and higher-volume formula milk feeding (HFM, ≥840 ml formula/d). Body weight and length were measured at 3 time points of 3, 6 and 12 mo of age.ResultsThe results showed that the difference in weight and length between the HFM and BM infants was significant at 3 mo of age (P < 0.05) and continued until 12 mo of age (P < 0.001). The adjusted mean changes in weight-for-length z-scores (WLZ) and BMI-for-age z-scores (BAZ) from 3 to 6 mo of age were significantly higher in HFM and LFM group than in BM group. Two-way interactions between feeding practice and age intervals were significant for WLZ changes (P = 0.002) and BAZ changes (P = 0.017). Compared with BM-fed infants, infants fed with HFM had 1.60-fold (95% CI 1.05–2.44) higher odds of greater body weight (1SD < WLZ ≤2 SD) at the age of 6 mo and 1.55-fold (95% CI 1.01–2.37) higher odds of greater body weight and 2.13-fold (95% CI 1.03–4.38) higher odds of overweight (WLZ > 2 SD) at the age of 12 mo.ConclusionFeeding higher volumes of formula in early infancy is associated with greater body weight and overweight in later infancy.

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A nine-country study of the protein content and amino acid composition of mature human milk

Cited by 40 publications

References 26 publications

Impact of early rapid weight gain on odds for overweight at one year differs between breastfed and formula‐fed infants

Impact of early rapid weight gain on odds for overweight at one year differs between breastfed and formula‐fed infants

Longitudinal Variation of Amino Acid Levels in Human Milk and Their Associations with Infant Gender

Early feeding of larger volumes of formula milk is associated with greater body weight or overweight in later infancy

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