2021
DOI: 10.1016/j.econlet.2020.109664
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Causal effects of an absent crowd on performances and refereeing decisions during Covid-19

Abstract: The Covid-19 pandemic has induced worldwide natural experiments on the effects of crowds. We exploit one of these experiments that took place over several countries in almost identical settings: professional football matches played behind closed doors within the 2019/20 league seasons. We find large and statistically significant effects on the number of yellow cards issued by referees. Without a crowd, fewer cards were awarded to the away teams, reducing home advantage. These results have implications for the … Show more

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Cited by 134 publications
(187 citation statements)
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“…Addressing team and referee heterogeneity, we found average effects of playing behind closed doors in the 2019/20 season that were consistent with the aforementioned pre-Covid-19 estimates, which had relied on much smaller samples of matches: no significant general impacts on match outcomes or score lines, but fewer yellow cards awarded to away teams (Bryson et al, 2021). There have been several other studies of these patterns since Covid-19, either using sub-samples of our data (e.g., Endrich and Gesche, 2020) or alternative empirical approaches (e.g., Benz and Lopez, 2020;Scoppa, 2021), finding similar results (see the summary in .…”
Section: Behaviour Bias and Social Pressure: Sport Behind Closed Doorssupporting
confidence: 77%
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“…Addressing team and referee heterogeneity, we found average effects of playing behind closed doors in the 2019/20 season that were consistent with the aforementioned pre-Covid-19 estimates, which had relied on much smaller samples of matches: no significant general impacts on match outcomes or score lines, but fewer yellow cards awarded to away teams (Bryson et al, 2021). There have been several other studies of these patterns since Covid-19, either using sub-samples of our data (e.g., Endrich and Gesche, 2020) or alternative empirical approaches (e.g., Benz and Lopez, 2020;Scoppa, 2021), finding similar results (see the summary in .…”
Section: Behaviour Bias and Social Pressure: Sport Behind Closed Doorssupporting
confidence: 77%
“…The Covid-19 pandemic has induced worldwide natural experiments on the effects of crowds. We exploited one of these experiments that took place over several countries in almost identical settings: professional football matches played behind closed doors within the 2019/20 league seasons (Bryson et al, 2021). Figure 2 shows a decline in home advantage in professional football competitions worldwide, which began some time ago, but which became more pronounced since Covid-19, when most matches were played without crowds.…”
Section: Behaviour Bias and Social Pressure: Sport Behind Closed Doorsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Therefore, also the decrease in the home advantage may not be the same for all teams and leagues. Bryson et al (2021) confirm this result by stating that the reduction of the home advantage in the German Bundesliga is fairly comprehensive compared to other European leagues. Furthermore, the Bundesliga was the first league restarting matches behind closed doors.…”
Section: Discussionsupporting
confidence: 61%
“…Cueva (2020) considers a large data set of 41 football leagues stating that the home advantage decreases on average by about one half. Moreover, Bryson et al (2021) find that the magnitude of such decrease varies across leagues. The studies also agree that the referee bias towards the home teams disappeared, potentially due to less social pressure of home fans on the referee (see also Endrich and Gesche 2020).…”
Section: The Advantage Of Playing At Homementioning
confidence: 83%
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