Chitosan and Its Derivatives in Clinical Use and Applications

Recent Advancements in 3D Printing of Polysaccharide Hydrogels in Cartilage Tissue Engineering

“…The printability of chitosan, including ion complexes (e.g., chitosan-alginate), was well documented, and 3D-printed chitosan scaffolds are attractive scaffold materials for CTE [71,73,[91][92][93]. growth factors and cytokines [82]. A wide range of possibilities for combining chitosan with other materials in chitosan-based hydrogels has already been used in CTE.…”

“…It is often used together with glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which are among the main constituents of ECM in cartilage tissue [ 81 ]. Furthermore, chitosan can regulate cellular fate processes by interacting with growth factors and cytokines [ 82 ]. A wide range of possibilities for combining chitosan with other materials in chitosan-based hydrogels has already been used in CTE.…”

“…A wide range of possibilities for combining chitosan with other materials in chitosan-based hydrogels has already been used in CTE. These combinations include natural (e.g., collagen, gelatin, alginate, hyaluronic acid, silk fibroin), chondroitin sulfate, and synthetic (e.g., polycaprolactone and polylactic acid, polyvinyl alcohol) polymers, as well as bioceramics (e.g., calcium phosphate, calcium polyphosphate, and hydroxyapatite) [ 30 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ]. Chitosan is also used frequently in combination with anionic polysaccharides to form ion polysaccharide complexes.…”

Injectable and 3D Bioprinted Polysaccharide Hydrogels: From Cartilage to Osteochondral Tissue Engineering

“…Chitosan is a linear aminopolysaccharide consisting of β(1→4)-linked d -glucosamine residues and N-acetyl-glucosamine groups (Figure C). It is a semisynthetic polymer derived by the partial deacetylation of the poorly soluble chitin. , The cationic chitosan possess bioactive properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and microbicidal property that renders versatile applications for this polysaccharide . The positive charge of chitosan interacts electrostatically with negatively charged ECM molecules like glycosaminoglycans, which in turn links with cytokines and growth factors to regulate the cellular fate processes .…”

“…It is a semisynthetic polymer derived by the partial deacetylation of the poorly soluble chitin. , The cationic chitosan possess bioactive properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and microbicidal property that renders versatile applications for this polysaccharide . The positive charge of chitosan interacts electrostatically with negatively charged ECM molecules like glycosaminoglycans, which in turn links with cytokines and growth factors to regulate the cellular fate processes . Additionally, nontoxicity, processability, ease of chemical modification via hydroxyl and amine functional groups, mechanical properties, and unique engineered structures of chitosan are advantageous for cell and tissue engineering applications. − Moreover, due to its chemical structural similarity with diverse glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), the predominant ECM molecules in cartilage and meniscus, chitosan mimics the native microenvironment for chondrocytes and meniscus cells and promotes chondrogenic activity and cartilage-specific protein expression. ,, Chitosan–polycaprolactone copolymers blended with varying ratios of collagen II to construct layer by layer mimetic porous microstructured scaffolds cross-linked with sodium tripolyphosphate for articular cartilage repair.…”