Output position and word relatedness effects in a DRM paradigm: Support for a dual-retrieval process theory of free recall and false memories

Barnhardt, Terrence M.; Choi, Hyun Jin; Gerkens, David R.; Smith, Steven M.

doi:10.1016/j.jml.2006.04.003

Cited by 30 publications

(37 citation statements)

References 57 publications

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“…Contrary to the typical report that false recall is output in later SPs, for example, position 6 (Brainerd et al, 2003;Roediger & McDermott, 1995), or 65% down the recall sequence (Barnhardt et al, 2006), this study has found that false recall is output in two bouts, an early and a later one. In addition, the relative frequency of the early one is higher than that of the later one.…”

Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 99%

“…This finding is consistent with the idea that if the critical word is studied, it should accrue greater activation than other list words because in addition to the activation derived from studying the critical word directly, the activations of all the other list words converge on that word (Brainerd & Wright, 2005;Roediger, McDermott, & Robinson, 1998). Barnhardt et al (2006) found that the mean output SP of the CPWs and that of the CNPW were both located near the middle point of the recalled array, but with the former being just prior to the middle point, and the latter just past the middle point. Based on this finding, they argued that the dual-retrieval process, but not the strength theory, was supported.…”

Section: Confidence Ratingmentioning

confidence: 92%

“…Second, both the latency and the accuracy data indicated that free recall output sequence follows the order of memory strength, and not the order in which the weakest item is output first and the strongest last during the first direct retrieval phase, and the strongest first and the weakest last during the second gist-based reconstructive phase as claimed by the cognitive triage principle of the dual-retrieval processes theory. Third, false or constructed memory was output in two phases, rather than only in the second phase as suggested by the dual-retrieval processes theory and other investigators (Brainerd et al, 2002(Brainerd et al, , 2003(Brainerd et al, , 2005Barnhardt et al, 2006).…”

Section: Conditional Correct Recall Ratementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Brainerd and his associates have demonstrated the cognitive triage phenomenon of the dual-retrieval recall process in many developmental studies (Brainerd, Olney, & Reyna, 1993;Brainerd, Reyna, Howe, & Kevershan,1990, 1991. Similarly, Barnhardt, Choi, Gerkens, & Smith (2006) recently demonstrated the same phenomenon with adult subjects and found no evidence supporting the strength theory. Brainerd (1995; argued that cognitive triage in free call is not just a memory strategy but rather a basic memory interference minimizing process because neither children as young as age 6 (before they start to use any memory strategy) nor adults have conscious awareness of using a deliberate strategic control when cognitive triage can be observed in their recall.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Recall latencies, confidence, and output positions of true and false memories: Implications for recall and metamemory theories

Jou¹

2008

Journal of Memory and Language

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Recall latency, recall accuracy rate, and recall confidence were examined in free recall as a function of recall output serial position using a modified Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm to test a strength-based theory against the dual-retrieval process theory of recall output sequence. The strength theory predicts the item output sequence to be in the descending order of memory strength. The dual-retrieval process theory postulates two phases in a free recall, a first direct access phase in which items are output verbatim in the weakest-to-strongest order (cognitive triage) and a second reconstructive phase in which reconstructed items are output in the strongestto-weakest order. In three experiments, all three indicators of memory strength (latency, accuracy, and confidence) consistently showed a descending-strength order of recall both for true and false memories. Additionally, false memory was found to be output in two phases and subjects' confidence judgment of their own memory to be unaccountable by retrieval fluency (recall latency). Keywords recall latencies; recall output position; false memory; metamemoryThe main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between memory strength of remembered items and their sequential output order in free recall. Research results have been inconsistent regarding the relationship between these two variables. Two theoretical perspectives make different predictions. The first view will be termed memory strength theories (Anderson, 1976(Anderson, , 2005Dosher, 1984;Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984;Norman, 2002; Wixted, Ghadisha, and Vera, 1997). These theories hold that the output sequence of items in a free recall follows the decreasing order of memory strength or activation of the items, i.e., recall output order is from the strongest to the weakest item. Also, according to these theories, the retrieval time for stronger memory is shorter than for weaker memory. The other perspective will be termed the dual-retrieval processes theory (

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Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 99%

Section: Confidence Ratingmentioning

confidence: 92%

Section: Conditional Correct Recall Ratementioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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Recall latencies, confidence, and output positions of true and false memories: Implications for recall and metamemory theories

Jou¹

2008

Journal of Memory and Language

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“…Sixth, encoding manipulations that make targets' surface features more distinctive while leaving their semantic content unchanged (e.g., presenting targets as pictures rather than as printed words, generating visual images of the orthographies of orally-presented words versus listening only) increase the true recall probability but suppress the false recall probability (for reviews, see Brainerd & Reyna, 2005;Gallo, 2006). This result is expected because making targets' surface forms more distinctive ought to shift recall in the direction of direct access.Finally, a series of recent experiments by Barnhardt et al (2006) tested two, rather precise, predictions of the direct access/reconstruction distinction. First, suppose that subjects study a list of words that share meaning, but within the list, a few unrelated words are also presented-e.g., a list of 25 words is studied that consists of 20 city names, plus 5 unrelated words inserted at random positions.…”

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confidence: 99%

Trichotomous processes in early memory development, aging, and neurocognitive impairment: A unified theory.

Brainerd¹,

Reyna²,

Howe³

2009

Psychological Review

182

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This is the accepted version of the paper.This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link IN PRESS: Psychological Review AbstractOne of the most extensively investigated topics in the adult memory literature, dual memory processes, has had virtually no impact on the study of early memory development. We remove the key obstacles to such research by formulating a trichotomous theory of recall that combines the traditional dual processes of recollection and familiarity with a reconstruction process. The theory is then embedded in a hidden Markov model that measures all three processes with low-burden tasks that are appropriate for even young children. These techniques are applied to a large corpus of developmental studies of recall, yielding stable findings about the emergence of dual memory processes between childhood and young adulthood and generating tests of many theoretical predictions. The techniques are extended to the study of healthy aging and to the memory sequelae of common forms of cognitive impairment, resulting in a theoretical framework that is unified over four major domains of memory research: early development, mainstream adult research, aging, and cognitive impairment. The techniques are also extended to recognition, creating a unified dual-process framework for recall and recognition.Keywords: memory development, dual memory processes, aging, cognitive impairment, hidden Markov models Trichotomous Processes in Early Memory Development, Aging, and Cognitive Impairment:A Unified Theory This paper has three objectives. The first is to resolve a fundamental problem in memory development research; the second is to apply that solution to a large corpus of developmental studies of recall; and the third is to extend the solution to memory changes that occur during healthy aging and in certain forms of cognitive impairment. The problem in question is the scant impact that dual-process distinctions have had on the study of early (child-to-young-adult) memory development. The result is a dramatic disparity in knowledge about dual memory processes in adults, which is vast, versus knowledge about how those processes first evolve, which is thin and inconsistent. Our solution, as will be seen, is (a) to propose a trichotomous theory of recall that subsumes traditional dual-process distinctions, (b) to implement that theory in a low-burden family of tasks that are appropriate for even very young children, and (c) to show that a new mathematical model of those tasks can be used to measure the development of trichotomous memory processes and to test theoretical predictions about them. Concerning the second objective, we show that an attractive feature of this solution is that a developmental data base exists that can be analyzed with the model, thereby closing the gap in knowledge about early memory development. With respect to the third objective, unlike early development, the study of memory changes during aging and in cognitive impairment have been strong...

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Judgment errors in naturalistic numerical estimation

Zou

Bhatia

2021

Cognition

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Output position and word relatedness effects in a DRM paradigm: Support for a dual-retrieval process theory of free recall and false memories

Cited by 30 publications

References 57 publications

Recall latencies, confidence, and output positions of true and false memories: Implications for recall and metamemory theories

Recall latencies, confidence, and output positions of true and false memories: Implications for recall and metamemory theories

Trichotomous processes in early memory development, aging, and neurocognitive impairment: A unified theory.

Judgment errors in naturalistic numerical estimation

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