The dynamics of vulnerability: locating coping strategies in Kenya and Tanzania

Abstract

We investigate how smallholder farmers at two sites in Kenya and Tanzania cope with climate stress and how constraints and opportunities shape variations in coping strategies between households and over time during a drought. On the basis of this analysis, we draw out implications for adaptation and adaptive policy. We find that households where an individual was able to specialize in one favoured activity, such as employment or charcoal burning, in the context of overall diversification by the household, were often less vulnerable than households where each individual is engaged in many activities at low intensity. Many households had limited access to the favoured coping options due to a lack of skill, labour and/or capital. This lack of access was compounded by social relations that led to exclusion of certain groups, especially women, from carrying out favoured activities with sufficient intensity. These households instead carried out a multitude of less favoured and frequently complementary activities, such as collecting indigenous fruit. While characterized by suitability to seasonal environmental variations and low demands on time and cash investments, these strategies often yielded marginal returns. Both the marginalization of local niche products and the commercialization of forest resources exemplify processes leading to differential vulnerability. We suggest that vulnerability can usefully be viewed in terms of the interaction of such processes, following the concept of locality. We argue that coping is a distinct component of vulnerability and that understanding the dynamism of coping and vulnerability is critical to developing adaptation measures that support people as active agents.

Identifying drivers of household coping strategies to multiple climatic hazards in Western Uganda: implications for adapting to future climate change

“…Socio-economic factors clearly drive choice of coping activity. Indeed our findings resonate for example, with those of Eriksen et al (2005) that gender is important in household decisions to specialise in an activity.…”

“…However, non-farm income generating activities may not be reliable during droughts as the overall income and therefore spending within a community dependent on natural resources may decrease (Eriksen et al 2005). Nonetheless, some studies observed such activities increase during drought (Cunguara et al 2011) especially in market-orientated communities where there is more continuous trading activity.…”

“…Place-based studies help to understand the role of context specific factors (Eriksen et al 2005) which must be accounted for if associated policies are to benefit those they target. For this reason, this paper examines drivers of household coping strategies to floods and droughts in two communities in rural Uganda.…”

When not every response to climate change is a good one: Identifying principles for sustainable adaptation

“…Local knowledge in disaster risk management is critical for reducing vulnerability among the poorest, and can be combined with policy efforts to address social equity and vulnerability. Any policy intervention to strengthen adaptation and reduce risk would need to recognize community participation in disaster prevention and response and strategies for living with environmental variability (Wisner et al, 2004;Eriksen et al, 2005;Pelling and High, 2005;van Aalst et al, 2008).…”

Participatory scenario planning for developing innovation in community adaptation responses: three contrasting examples from Latin America

“…In Mexico, future planning was unfamiliar to the community as their primary focus was on the routine of 'daily activities' rather than long-term issues, indicative of a reliance on coping mechanisms (Eriksen et al, 2005). However, during the process participants expressed satisfaction at 'having been given the opportunity to think about the future'.…”