Since the early 1990s, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been perceived as a catalyst for development. However, the UNICEF State of the World's Children Report 2011 acknowledges that the poor in many developing countries remain largely excluded from ICT and its benefits. This paper aims to address three issues. Firstly, identify ICT barriers in the literature from 2000 to 2011. Secondly, identify ICT barriers through empirical findings and thirdly, categorize these barriers into critical success factors. These aims are achieved by comparing the findings in the literature to our recent empirical results. Two methodologies are used in this study, namely, a systematic literature review and a case study; the empirical data for our case study was collected from The Gambia in autumn of 2012. The systematic literature review covers 1107 studies (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011) published in the top five ranked ICT4D journals in terms of journal citation ranking. The paper identifies a total of 43 ICT barriers. Forty of them are common to both studies while the remaining three were revealed in the case study, namely, lack of Internet exchange points, micromanaging and invisible hands. The barriers in both studies are grouped into eight possible critical success factors and their degrees of severity are then compared. This paper argues that lack of Internet exchange points is an important ICT barrier that is overlooked in our review pool.

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We argue that the currently dominant methods in Information Systems are not satisfactory for emancipatory research and development whose starting point is work. Activity theory was proposed as such an emancipatory research-cumdevelopment approach in IS a decade ago. However, the potential identified in the theory has not fully materialized. As our own contribution toward making activity theory more operational in IS, we present an elaborated framework, ActAD, and review our experience in applying it to descriptive research, practical analysis, and constructive research. We claim that in order to fully unleash the potential of activity theory, activity-based methods should be developed further for IS requirements analysis projects and IS implementation projects, as well as for facilitating software development. The most appropriate way of developing such applied methods is through collaborative action Ever since the Manchester conference on Information Systems research methods in 1984, the international research community has recognized that a diversity of research approaches or philosophies exists within IS. According to Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991), three broad categories are commonly identified: positivist, interpretive, and critical. In this paper, we take the last mentioned, emancipatory or developmental standpoint (i.e., we are not only interested in understanding information systems within organizations, but also in developing "better" information systems). What, then, does better mean? What criteria should good information systems meet?Different theorists in different times have named different factors as the most important, distinctive aspects of information systems. The very term information system implies that information is what it all comes down to. Those who share this view delve into information flows and entity-relationship models, regardless of the technology and purpose of information processing. Others underline technology, usually equating it with computers, and particularly equating information systems with software systems. Those with cybernetic backgrounds emphasize the term system, searching only for systemic entities and ignoring how bits and pieces of information and communication technology (ICT) are used in organizations. Researchers applying Habermas stress the communication aspects of information systems, viewing them as language games. In the very title of IFIP WG 8.2, social and organizational aspects of information systems are emphasized, with the view that the term information system refers to the organizational processes and resources of information management. Finally, the human or individual actors of information systems are pointed out as the starting point much too seldom.In our mind, all these aspects-information, technology, system, communication, organization and the individual-are important factors, but still only elements. None of these viewpoints sufficiently explains the purpose for which information systems exist.Our starting point is that purposeful work is the pro...