This essay attempts to explore the conditions of access and employment for football referees in France in terms of gender and refereeing level, based on processing 148 questionnaires. It shows that the social stratum from which the 'body' of referees is recruited appears to be higher for correspondingly higher levels of refereeing, and also seems to be clustered around individuals who have had a family sports background (even involving refereeing) and experience in playing football, while the conditions of access for women are less socially selective and less discriminatory in terms of experience in playing football. It also shows that, in terms of a level of education that increases in direct relation to the level of refereeing, referees carry out their activities alongside professional management roles, which are most often at a lower level than that at which they officiate as referees.
IntroductionWith media coverage and players' careers associated with financial stakes that increase concomitantly with skill levels, football has made the 'green rectangle' the focus of major social, economic and political issues. 1 In this context, players have become 'buyable and re-sellable merchandise' 2 and true performance experts 3 charged with achieving good results with 'their team'. Referees, however, are required to avoid making mistakes as they observe and give decisions during a game. A recent documentary commissioned by UEFA has drawn particular attention to the effect that a bad decision can have on a referee (and his family). 4 While historical and sociological studies have been carried out on French footballers, 5 referees still remain on the margins of French sociological (and even historical) research. 6 In fact, over and above the general studies carried out by D. Denis 7 and a more specific study of football 8 and socio-demographic data in the national report 'Refereeing and Judgment in Sporting Practice', 9 French football referees have hardly been studied at all. The purpose of this essay is therefore to make an exploratory enquiry into the conditions of access to, and pursuit of a role in, football refereeing in France, identifying any differences in terms of gender or the level at which refereeing is practised.
10 % des bacheliers professionnels entrent à l’Université, avec une orientation souvent vécue par défaut et de faibles probabilités de valider un diplôme. Parmi eux, quelques-uns déjouent les probabilités d’orientation en s’inscrivant en STAPS ou en classe préparatoire aux écoles d’art. « Outsiders sociaux et scolaires », mais « ayants droit » du sport ou de l’art, ces bacheliers se présentent comme des étudiants déterminés au point de rejeter les réserves exprimées à leur encontre. Leurs propos révèlent l’espace des possibles et la liberté des jeunes de choisir des études qu’ils ont des raisons de préférer au moment de la transition entre le secondaire et le supérieur. Mobilisant ainsi une stratégie de détour dans un contexte où continuer ses études est devenu une norme de génération, ils s’autorisent d’autres destins scolaires que ceux préfigurés par leur cursus dans l’enseignement professionnel.
Cette contribution s’attache aux effets paradoxaux de la possession de compétences et de capital sportifs sur les parcours des normaliennes en sciences du sport et éducation physique. Elle analyse les stratégies d’orientation de ces jeunes femmes que le goût du sport, central conduit à opter pour des orientations scolaires, puis professionnelles, oscillant entre conformité et atypisme, le plus souvent en deçà de ce à quoi elles peuvent prétendre. Ces « oscillations » entre reproduction des normes de genre et détachement à l’égard des référentiels masculins de réussite expriment la tendance à la reproduction du monde social travaillée par P. Bourdieu (Bourdieu, 1994) ainsi que la possible activation de dispositions apparemment contradictoires selon les contextes et les moments d’un parcours (Lahire, 2004).
Génération 2010 : diversité des parcours de réussite (In)fortunes professionnelles des femmes à la sortie d'une filière universitaire masculine, les STAPS Professional (mis)fortunes for women after Sports studies (STAPS), a university field dominated by men Berufliches Glück/Missgeschick der Frauen nach einem typisch männlichen Studiengang im Bereich Sportwissenschaften (In) fortunios profesionales de las mujeres al salir de una especialidad universitaria masculina, las STAPS
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