Since a 1997 review by Karageorghis and Terry, which highlighted the state of knowledge and methodological weaknesses, the number of studies investigating musical reactivity in relation to exercise has swelled considerably. In this two-part review paper, the development of conceptual approaches and mechanisms underlying the effects of music are explicated (Part I), followed by a critical review and synthesis of empirical work (spread over Parts I and II). Pre-task music has been shown to optimise arousal, facilitate task-relevant imagery and improve performance in simple motoric tasks. During repetitive, endurance-type activities, self-selected, motivational and stimulative music has been shown to enhance affect, reduce ratings of perceived exertion, improve energy efficiency and lead to increased work output. There is evidence to suggest that carefully selected music can promote ergogenic and psychological benefits during high-intensity exercise, although it appears to be ineffective in reducing perceptions of exertion beyond the anaerobic threshold. The effects of music appear to be at their most potent when it is used to accompany self-paced exercise or in externally valid conditions. When selected according to its motivational qualities, the positive impact of music on both psychological state and performance is magnified. Guidelines are provided for future research and exercise practitioners.

Since a 1997 review by Karageorghis and Terry, which highlighted the state of knowledge and methodological weaknesses, the number of studies investigating musical reactivity in relation to exercise has swelled considerably. In this two-part review paper, the development of conceptual approaches and mechanisms underlying the effects of music are explicated (Part I), followed by a critical review and synthesis of empirical work (spread over Parts I and II). Pre-task music has been shown to optimise arousal, facilitate task-relevant imagery and improve performance in simple motoric tasks. During repetitive, endurance-type activities, self-selected, motivational and stimulative music has been shown to enhance affect, reduce ratings of perceived exertion, improve energy efficiency and lead to increased work output. There is evidence to suggest that carefully selected music can promote ergogenic and psychological benefits during high-intensity exercise, although it appears to be ineffective in reducing perceptions of exertion beyond the anaerobic threshold. The effects of music appear to be at their most potent when it is used to accompany self-paced exercise or in externally valid conditions. When selected according to its motivational qualities, the positive impact of music on both psychological state and performance is magnified. Guidelines are provided for future research and exercise practitioners.

The present study examined the impact of motivational music and oudeterous (neutral in terms of motivational qualities) music on endurance and a range of psychophysical indices during a treadmill walking task. Experimental participants (N = 30; mean age = 20.5 years, SD = 1.0 years) selected a program of either pop or rock tracks from artists identified in an earlier survey. They walked to exhaustion, starting at 75% maximal heart rate reserve, under conditions of motivational synchronous music, oudeterous synchronous music, and a no-music control. Dependent measures included time to exhaustion, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and in-task affect (both recorded at 2-min intervals), and exercise-induced feeling states. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze time to exhaustion data. Two-way repeated measures (Music Condition  Trial Point) ANOVAs were used to analyze in-task measures, whereas a one-way repeated measures MANOVA was used to analyze the exerciseinduced feeling states data. Results indicated that endurance was increased in both music conditions and that motivational music had a greater ergogenic effect than did oudeterous music (p < .01). In addition, in-task affect was enhanced by motivational synchronous music when compared with control throughout the trial (p < .01). The experimental conditions did not impact significantly (p > .05) upon RPE or exerciseinduced feeling states, although a moderate effect size was recorded for the latter ( p 2 = .09). The present results indicate that motivational synchronous music can elicit an ergogenic effect and enhance in-task affect during an exhaustive endurance task.Keywords: asynchronous music, pace setting, aerobic efficiency, rhythm Among the numerous initiatives aimed at tackling the prevalence of inactivity and obesity in contemporary Western society (e.g., Jain, 2004;Swinburn, Gill, & Kumanyika, 2005), the combination of music and physical activity has received serious consideration (Edworthy & Waring, 2006;Crust & Clough, 2006;Karageorghis, Jones, & Stuart, 2008;Szabo, Small, & Leigh, 1999). Accordingly, during the last decade, there has been a sharp increase in the number of studiesThe authors are with the School of Sport and Education, Brunel University, West London, U.K. Synchronous Walking 19examining the psychophysical and ergogenic effects of music in sport and exercise. This is evidenced by the small number of related studies (k = 13) cited in the review of Karageorghis and Terry (1997), which covered research conducted over the 25-year period since Lucaccini and Kreit's (1972) review. In the subsequent decade, at least 43 related studies have been published.Relatively few studies have investigated the impact of synchronous music (Anshel & Marisi, 1978;Hayakawa, Miki, Takada, & Tanaka, 2000;Simpson & Karageorghis, 2006). The use of synchronous music entails the conscious performance of repetitive movements in time with the rhythmical elements of music such as beat or tempo (Simpson & Karageorghis). In selecting synchronous mus...

ObjectivesMotivational music when synchronized with movement has been found to improve performance in anaerobic and aerobic endurance tasks, although gender differences pertaining to the potential benefits of such music have seldom been investigated. The present study addresses the psychological and ergogenic effects of synchronous music during circuit-type exercise.

This is an Author's Accepted Manuscript of an article published in Journal of Sports Sciences, 30(9), 953-956, 2012, copyright Taylor & Francis, available online at: http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/02640414.2012.676665.The use of music during exercise has become ubiquitous over the past two decades and is now supported by a burgeoning body of research detailing its effects and the contingencies surrounding its use. The purpose of this statement is to present a synopsis of the body of knowledge, with selected references, and to provide practical recommendations for exercise practitioners regarding music selection. Following the identification of methodological shortcomings in early studies, researchers have been guided by new conceptual frameworks, and have produced more consistent findings as a consequence. The use of music has been found to yield ergogenic effects in the exercise domain while also promoting psychological (e.g. enhanced affect) and psychophysical (reduced ratings of perceived exertion) benefits. There is a paucity of research examining the longitudinal effects of music on key outcome variables such as exercise adherence