Demonstrating the equivalence of constructs is a key requirement for crosscultural\ud empirical research. The major purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how to\ud assess measurement and functional equivalence or invariance using the 9-item, 3-factor\ud Love of Money Scale (LOMS, a second-order factor model) and the 4-item, 1-factor Pay\ud Level Satisfaction Scale (PLSS, a first-order factor model) across 29 samples in six\ud continents (N = 5973). In step 1, we tested the configural, metric and scalar invariance\ud of the LOMS and 17 samples achieved measurement invariance. In step 2, we applied\ud the same procedures to the PLSS and nine samples achieved measurement invariance.\ud Five samples (Brazil, China, South Africa, Spain and the USA) passed the measurement\ud invariance criteria for both measures. In step 3, we found that for these two measures,\ud common method variance was non-significant. In step 4, we tested the functional\ud equivalence between the Love of Money Scale and Pay Level Satisfaction Scale. We\ud achieved functional equivalence for these two scales in all five samples. The results of\ud this study suggest the critical importance of evaluating and establishing measurement\ud equivalence in cross-cultural studies. Suggestions for remedying measurement nonequivalence\ud are offered

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Resumo: Os cosméticos são uma categoria de produtos que, nas últimas décadas, tem aumentado significativamente o consumo nas mulheres e em especial nos homens. Este consumo tem sido incrementado muito em especial para a importância que a sociedade atribui aos ideais de beleza que são veiculados e que vão afectar a imagem corporal. Deste modo, imagem corporal e publicidade aos cosméticos são duas variáveis relevantes para explicar o seu consumo. Esta investigação procura identificar como a imagem corporal afecta os motivos de compra de cosméticos através da publicidade e do envolvimento com os cosméticos. Assim foi construído um modelo que explica esta relação. Para validar este modelo foi construído um questionário com um conjunto de escalas já validadas e aplicada a uma amostra de 513 sujeitos que consumiam cosméticos. Os resultados mostram-nos que, apesar de as pessoas atribuírem pouca importância à sua imagem corporal, pouco envolvimento com os cosméticos e uma atitude neutra em relação à publicidade aos cosméticos, o modelo se ajusta aos padrões mínimos estatísticos necessários para que ele funcione. Concluímos que a imagem corporal tem um impacto significativo nos motivos de compra de cosméticos e que a publicidade aos cosméticos, bem como o envolvimento com eles desempenham um papel de relevo na mediação entre as duas variáveis.Palavras-chave: publicidade, consumo, cosméticos. IntroduçãoO papel da imagem corporal tem assumido cada vez maior importância na actual sociedade de consumo como determinante da identidade das pessoas (Dittmar, 2005c). Deste modo, são os pensamentos e os sentimentos em relação ao corpo físico que de uma

Representações sociais do empreendedorismo: o papel da formação na aquisição de competências empreendedoras Representaciones sociales de la iniciativa empresarial: el papel de la formación en la adquisición de habilidades empresariales Social representations of entrepreneurship: The role of training in the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills

This study analyses the gender stereotypes, sex and violence in advertisements in all media except radio, from Portugal and Spain. We have conducted this study after ascertaining that gender stereotypes, as well as sexual and violent scenes, are embedded in advertisement as a formula to increase the possibility of remembering them. This advertisement analysis explores gender stereotyping, sex and violence, both for the Portuguese and Spanish advertisement market. We used a sample of 245 messages from Portuguese and Spanish advertising and a specific grid for this analysis from. We used all media, except radio, between July and November of 2008. The messages were selected from the following categories of products: foods and non-alcoholic beverages, cars and accessories, restaurants and commercial spaces, financial services and insurance, household products, electronic devices and communications, clothes and alcoholic beverages. These ads messages were select with a criterion of the characters. All messages must have at least one character, male or female. The messages were selected from the following categories of products: foods and non-alcoholic beverages, cars and accessories, restaurants and commercial spaces, financial services and insurance, household products, electronic devices and communications, clothes and alcoholic beverages. These ads messages were select with a criterion of the characters. All messages must have at least one character, male or female. The results in Portugal and Spain about gender stereotypes are in line with previous advertising studies from different countries across the years, showing that it prevails despite the change in women´s role in the world. However, there were practically no situations of discrimination of women or placing them in subordinate roles to men. The results also show us that sex and violence are in a lower level in the advertising of Portugal and Spain. advertising messages from (all) media -Television 83 -Press -149 -Outdoor 9 -Internet 4. The TV ads were found from 200 hours watched in prime time, (between July and November of 2008 in all broadcast in open signal in Portugal, and Spain, the press ads were found from 300 titles consulted, between July and November of 2008, 22 mensal review, 5 weekly review like, and diary and weekly press, the Internet ads were found from 90 visits to the sites with more visits in Portugal and Spain, between July