Toxoplasmosis is spread through contamination of water sources and results in morbidity globally. In the current study 300 water samples were processed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of Toxoplasma gondii. The overall prevalence in different water sources was 6.6% (17/300). Among different water sources the highest prevalence was recorded in drain water at 7% (7/100), followed by tube well water at 7.5% (3/40) and open well water at 5% (5/100) ,and the lowest was recorded in tap water at 3.33% (2/60). The highest prevalence was recorded in summer. Evidence indicates that cleaning and filtration need to be adopted to avoid the health hazards of waterborne zoonotic parasites.

Bacterial strains having the ability to inhibit the growth of other bacteria were isolated from soil samples collected from Kashmir Smast (smast is Pushto for cave), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study includes mineralogical and geochemical analyses of soil sample collected from the cave, so as to describe the habitat from which the microorganisms have been isolated. Total bacterial count of the soil sample was 5.25 3 10 4 CFU mL −1. Four bacterial isolates having activity against test organisms Micrococcus luteus, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Staphylococcus aureus were screened out for further study. Two of the isolates were found to be Gram-positive and the other two Gram-negative. The four isolates showing antibacterial activity were identified as Serratia sp. KC1-MRL, Bacillus licheniformis KC2-MRL, Bacillus sp. KC3-MRL, and Stenotrophomonas sp. KC4-MRL on the basis of 16S rRNA sequence analysis. Although all isolates showed antibacterial activity, only Bacillus licheniformis KC2-MRL was selected for further study due to its large zone of inhibition. Antibacterial activity of B. licheniformis KC2-MRL was optimum when grown in nutrient broth adjusted to pH 5 and after 24 hours of incubation at 35 uC. The extracted antibacterial compound was stable at pH 5-7 and 40 uC when incubated for 1 hour. The strain was found resistant against cefotaxime (ctx). Atomic-absorption analysis of the soil sample collected from the cave showed high concentrations of calcium (332.938 mg kg ) compared to the control soil collected outside the cave. FTIR spectrum of the concentrated protein showed similarity to bacitracin. The antibacterial compound showed activity against both Gram-negative and positive test strains. Mineralogy of Kashmir Smast is diverse and noteworthy. Different geochemical classes identified by X-ray diffraction were nitrates, oxides, phosphates, silicates, and sulfates. Weathered cave limestone contributes notably to the formation of these minerals or compounds. FTIR spectroscopic analysis helped to identify minerals such as quartz, clinochlore, vermiculite, illite, calcite, and biotite.

Low density polyethylene (LDPE) is used for making common shopping bags and plastic sheets and is a significant source of environmental pollution. The present study was aimed at testing the ability of bacterial strains identified as Serratia sp. KC1-MRL, Bacillus licheniformis KC2-MRL, Bacillus sp. KC3-MRL and Stenotrophomonas sp. KC4-MRL isolated from a limestone cave to degrade polyethylene. These strains were isolated from soil of Kashmir Smast, a limestone cave in Buner, Pakistan. These strains showed antibacterial activity against Micrococcus luteus, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Staphylococcus aureus. The pieces of LDPE plastic were incubated along with bacterial strains for a period of one month and then analyzed. Degradation was observed in terms of growth of microorganisms used in consortia, chemical changes in the composition of LDPE by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and changes in physical structure of LDPE by scanning electron microscopy. Maximum growth (107310 5 CFU mL À1 ) at 28 8C and subsequent change in chemical and physical properties of plastic were observed in the presence of calcium and glucose. The cave soil sample had a very high concentration of calcium. The microscopy showed adherence of bacteria with lots of mechanical damage and erosion on the surface of plastic films incubated with bacterial consortia. The spectroscopy showed breakdown and formation of many compounds, as evident by the appearance and disappearance of peaks in LDPE treated with bacterial consortia as compared to the untreated control. We conclude that antibiotic-producing cave bacteria were able to bring about physical and chemical changes in LDPE pieces and degradation of LDPE was enhanced in media augmented with calcium.

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